tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-83806506819851988142024-02-21T06:32:13.665-08:00Free Engineering NotesAshwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.comBlogger28125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-88313699670444390152009-03-23T00:45:00.000-07:002009-03-23T01:06:59.257-07:00Entity Relationship Diagram<div style="text-align: justify;"> <meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"> <meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"> <meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 12"> <meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 12"> <link style="font-family: arial;" rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CPLANET%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"> <link style="font-family: arial;" rel="themeData" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CPLANET%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx"> <link style="font-family: arial;" rel="colorSchemeMapping" 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<br /></span><span style=";font-size:100%;" ><o:p></o:p></span><span style="font-size:100%;">
<br /></span><span style=";font-size:100%;" ><o:p><span style="font-weight: bold;"> ER Diagram: logical database design </span></o:p></span><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:trackmoves/> <w:trackformatting/> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:donotpromoteqf/> <w:lidthemeother>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:lidthemeasian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:lidthemecomplexscript>KN</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> <w:splitpgbreakandparamark/> <w:dontvertaligncellwithsp/> <w:dontbreakconstrainedforcedtables/> <w:dontvertalignintxbx/> 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font-family: arial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Degree of Relationship
<br /></span><span style="font-size:100%;">
<br />One to one; (1:1) - one department - one HOD
<br />One to many: (1:M) - One HOD - many Teacher
<br />Many to one (M:1) - Many teachers - HOD
<br />Many to Many (M:N) - Many Courses - Many students
<br />
<br />Normalization: It’s a process of efficiently organizing data in a database. There are two goals of Normalization Process: eliminate redundant data (for example, storing the same data in more than one table) and ensure data dependencies make sense (only storing related data in a table). Both of these are worthy goals as they reduce the amount of space a database consumes and ensure that data is logically stored.
<br />
<br />Description of Normalization Forms:
<br />
<br />First Normal Form (1NF) sets the very basic rules for an organized database:
<br />- Eliminate duplicative columns from the same table.
<br />- Create separate tables for each group of related data and identity each row with a unique column (Primary Key)
<br />
<br />Second Normal Form (2NF) further addresses the concept of removing duplicative data:
<br />- Remove subsets of data that apply to multiple rows of a table and place them in separate rows.
<br />- Create relationships between these new tables and their predecessors through the use of foreign keys.
<br />
<br />Third Normal Form (3NF) goes one large step further:
<br />- Removes columns that are not dependant upon the primary key.
<br />
<br />Finally Forth Normal Form (4NF), also known as Boyce- Codd normal form (BCNF) has one requirement:
<br />- A relation is in BCNF if and only if determinant is a candidate key.
<br />
<br />Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)
<br />
<br />A Relational Database Management System (RDBMS) is an information system that presents information as rows contained in a collection of tables, each table possessing a set of one or more columns.
<br />
<br />Object-Oriented Relational Database Management System (OORDBMS)
<br />
<br />An Object-Oriented Relational Database Management System (OORDBMS) integrates a DBMS with the concepts of object-oriented programming. It tries to collate the persistence of a DBMS with the expressiveness of an object-oriented programming language. An Object- oriented databse thus stores persistent objects permanaetly on secondary storage. An OORDBMS permits these objects to be shared among different applications by provididng necessary DBMS functions such as indexing, concurrencey control and recovery. The main advantage of using object –orriented concepts to design is that databse is that such a databse is fully compatible with object – oriented applications and systems. Morever, an OORDBMS is oriented towards operations on single objects. RDBMSs are very inefficient in their performance with single objects.
<br />
<br />Primary key:
<br />
<br />In a well- designed relational database every table has some column or combination of columns whose values uniquely identify each row in the table. This column is called the primary key.
<br />
<br />Foreign Key:
<br />
<br />A column in one table whose value matches the primary key in some other table is called as a foreign key.
<br /></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-family: arial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;">
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margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;" width="84%" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <h4 style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">S.I<o:p></o:p></span></span></h4> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Data Type<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Description <o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">1<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">CHAR</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Fixed-length character data of length </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">size</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> bytes. Maximum </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">size</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> is 2000 bytes or characters. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">NCHAR</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Fixed-length character data of length </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">size</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> characters. Maximum </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">size</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> is determined by the national character set definition, with an upper limit of 2000 bytes. Default and minimum </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">size</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> is 1 character.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">3<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">VARCHAR2</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Variable-length character string having maximum length </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">size</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> bytes or characters. Maximum </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">size</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> is 4000 bytes or characters. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">4<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">NVARCHAR2<o:p></o:p></span></code></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Variable-length character string having maximum length </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">size</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> characters. Maximum </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">size</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> is determined by the national character set definition, with an upper limit of 4000 bytes. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">5<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">NUMBER (<i>p,s</i>)</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Number having precision </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">p</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> and scale </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">s</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">. The precision </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">p</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> can range from 1 to 38. The scale </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">s</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> can range from -84 to 127.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">6<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">INTEGER<o:p></o:p></span></code></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Stores integer numbers. An Integer number does not contains a floating point. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">7<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">DATE</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Valid date range from January 1, 4712 BC to December 31, 9999 AD.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">8<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">LONG</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Character data of variable length up to 2 gigabytes, or 2<sup>31</sup> -1 bytes.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">9<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">BLOB</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">A binary large object. Maximum size is (4 gigabytes - 1) * (database block size).<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">10<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">CLOB/NCLOB</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">A character large object containing single-byte or multibyte characters. Both fixed-width and variable-width character sets are supported, both using the database character set. Maximum size is (4 gigabytes - 1) * (database block size).<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">NCLOB: - </span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Stores national character set data.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">11<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">RAW (<i>size</i>)</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Raw binary data of length </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">size</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> bytes. Maximum </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">size</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> is 2000 bytes. You must specify </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">size</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> for a </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">RAW</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> value.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">12<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">LONG RAW</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Raw binary data of variable length up to 2 gigabytes.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">LONG RAW Can be used to stores graph, sound, documents or arrays of binary data.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">13<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">BFILE</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Contains a locator to a large binary file stored outside the database. Enables byte stream I/O access to external LOBs residing on the database server. Maximum size is 4 gigabytes.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td colspan="3" style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 407.75pt;" valign="top" width="544"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">New Data Type in Oracle 9i</span></b></code><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">14<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TIMESTAMP</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (</span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">fractional_seconds_precision</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Allow the time to be stored as a data with fraction of seconds. </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>fractional_seconds_precision</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> is the number of digits in the fractional part of the </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SECOND</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> datetime field. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">15<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TIMESTAMP</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (</span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">fractional_seconds_precision</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">) </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">WITH</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TIME</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">ZONE</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">All values of </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TIMESTAMP</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> as well as time zone displacement value, where </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">fractional_seconds_precision</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> is the number of digits in the fractional part of the </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SECOND</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> datetime field. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style="height: 87pt;"> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt; height: 87pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">16<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt; height: 87pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TIMESTAMP</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (</span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">fractional_seconds_precision</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">) </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">WITH</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">LOCAL</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TIME</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">ZONE</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt; height: 87pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">All values of </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TIMESTAMP</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">WITH</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TIME</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">ZONE</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">, with the following exceptions: <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style="">·<span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Data is normalized to the database time zone when it is stored in the database.<o:p></o:p></span></span><!--[endif]--></p> <p style="margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.25in;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style="">·<span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> </span></span></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;">When the data is retrieved, users see the data in the session time zone.<o:p></o:p></span></span><!--[endif]--></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">17<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">INTERVAL</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">YEAR</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (</span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">year_precision</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">) </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TO</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">MONTH</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Stores a period of time in years and months, where </span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">year_precision</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> is the number of digits in the </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">YEAR</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> datetime field. Accepted values are 0 to 9. The default is 2.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">18<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">INTERVAL</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">DAY</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (</span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">day_precision</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">) </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TO</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SECOND</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (</span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">fractional_seconds_precision</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">)<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Allows time to be stored as an interval of days to hours, minutes and second. Useful in presenting the precise difference between two date time values <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td colspan="3" style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 407.75pt;" valign="top" width="544"> <p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><b><span style="font-size: 10pt;">New Datatypes in 10g<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">19<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">BINARY_FLOAT<o:p></o:p></span></code></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Stores a single precision 32-bit floating-point number. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 26.45pt;" valign="top" width="35"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">20<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 115.65pt;" valign="top" width="154"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">BINARY_DOUBLE<o:p></o:p></span></code></span></p> </td> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 2.25pt; width: 265.65pt;" valign="top" width="354"> <p style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Stores a single precision 64-bit floating-point number. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> </p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: arial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;">
<br /></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: arial; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;">
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Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";} </style> <![endif]--> <table class="MsoNormalTable" style="border: medium none ; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: left; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px;" width="547" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td style="border: 1.5pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 77.4pt;" valign="top" width="103"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TIMESTAMP</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1.5pt 1.5pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 333pt;" valign="top" width="444"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SQL> create table emp23 (empno number(2), start_date timestamp(7)) ;<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SQL> insert into emp23 values (23,'02-may-2005') ;<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SQL> select * from emp23 ;<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>EMPNO<span style=""> </span>START_DATE<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">---------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>23<span style=""> </span>02-MAY-20 05.00.00.0000000 AM<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1.5pt 1.5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 77.4pt;" valign="top" width="103"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">timestamp with time zone<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1.5pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 333pt;" valign="top" width="444"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SQL> create table emp23 (empno number(2), start_date timestamp with time zone) ;<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SQL> insert into emp23 values (23,'15-nov-04 09:34:34 AM') ;<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SQL> select * from emp23 ;<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>EMPNO<span style=""> </span>START_DATE<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">---------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>23<span style=""> </span>15-NOV-04 09.34.34.000000 AM +05:30<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1.5pt 1.5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 77.4pt;" valign="top" width="103"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TIMESTAMP</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (</span><code><i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">fractional_seconds_precision</span></i></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">) </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">WITH</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">LOCAL</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TIME</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">ZONE</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1.5pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 333pt;" valign="top" width="444"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SQL> create table emp23 <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(empno number(2),<span style=""> </span>order_date timestamp with local time zone) ;<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SQL> insert into emp23 values (23,'15-Nov-2004 09:34:24 AM') ;<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SQL> select * from emp23 ;<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>EMPNO<span style=""> </span>ORDER_DATE<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">---------------------------------------------------------------------------<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>23<span style=""> </span>15-NOV-04 09.34.24.000000 AM<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1.5pt 1.5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 77.4pt;" valign="top" width="103"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">INTERVAL</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">YEAR</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TO</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">MONTH</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1.5pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 333pt;" valign="top" width="444"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SQL> create table emp23 <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>(empno number(2),<span style=""> </span>loan_duration interval year (3) to Month) ;<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SQL> insert into emp23 values (23,interval '120' month(3)) ;<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SQL> select to_char(sysdate+loan_duration,'dd-mon-yyyy') from emp23 ;<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TO_CHAR(SYS<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">------------------<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">12-may-2015<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1.5pt 1.5pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 77.4pt;" valign="top" width="103"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">INTERVAL</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">DAY</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span></span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">TO</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> </span><code><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SECOND</span></code><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1.5pt 1.5pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 333pt;" valign="top" width="444"> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SQL> create table emp23<span style=""> </span>(empno number(2), <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><span style=""> </span>day_duarion interval day (3) to second) ;<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SQL> insert into emp23 values (23,interval '180' day(3)) ;<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SQL> select sysdate+day_duarion from emp23 ; <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">SYSDATE+D<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">---------<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">08-NOV-05<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <span style="font-size:100%;">
<br /></span><span style=";font-size:100%;" ><o:p></o:p></span></p> Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-70024769357941835592009-03-23T00:43:00.000-07:002009-03-23T00:44:33.897-07:00The 12 Rules for an RDBMS (Codd' s Rule)<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The 12 Rules for an RDBMS (Codd' s Rule)</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Rule 1: The information Rule</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">All Information is explicitly and logically represented in exactly one way i.e by data values in tables.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Rule 2: The rule of guaranteed access </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Every item of data must be logically addressable by resorting to a combination of a Table name, Primary key and column name. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Rule 3: The systematic treatment of null value </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">This rule states that support for null values must be consistent throughout the DBMS, and independent of the data type of the field. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Rule 4: The Database Description Rule</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">A description of the database is held and maintained using the same logical structures used to define the data. This allows users to query such information in the same way and using the same language, as they would do for any other data in the database. </span></span><br /> <br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Rule 5: Comprehensive sub-language Rule</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">There must be at least one language whose statements can be expressed as character strings confirming to some well-defined syntax, which is comprehensive in supporting the following:</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> - Data definition, view Definition, Data Manipulation</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> - Integrity Constraints </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> - Authorization </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> - Transaction Boundaries </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">All the above topics are manageable through Structural Query Language (SQL) statement. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Rule 6: The view-updating Rule </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">All views that are theoretically updateable are also updated by the system. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">A view is a table is non-existent in its own right, but instead derived from one or more base tables. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Rule 7: The High Level Insert, Update and Delete Rule </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The capability to handling a base relation, or infact a derived relation, as a single operand must hold good for all retrieve, update, delete and insert activity.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">This means that the major DML commands, namely SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE and INSERT must be available and operational on sets of rows in a relation. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Rule 8: The physical independence Rule </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The user access to the database remains logically consistent even if the storage representation is changed. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Rule 9: The logical data independence Rule </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Application programs and terminal activities must remain logically unimpaired whenever information preserving changes of any kind, that are theoretically permitted, are made to the base tables. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Rule 10: Integrity independence Rule </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">All integrity constraint defined for a database must be definable in the language and stored in the database as data in tables. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The following integrity rules should apply every relational database </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Entity Integrity: No component of a primary key can have missing values or null values.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Referential Integrity: For each distinct foreign key value there must exist a matching primary key value in the same domain. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Rule 11: Distribution Rule </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">A RDBMS must have distribution independence. Application running on a non-distributed database must remain logically unimpaired if that data becomes distributed in the context of a distributed relational database. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Rule 12: Non-Subversion Rule </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">If an RDBMS supports a lower level language that permits for example, row-at-a-time processing, then this language must not be able to bypass any integrity rules or constraints defined in the higher level, set-at-a-time, relational language.</span></span><br /> <br /> </div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-14421358596932242112009-03-23T00:35:00.000-07:002009-03-23T00:43:15.424-07:00Introduction to DBMS Database Management System<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Introduction to DBMS </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Database: A Database is a collection of inter-related data from which some information can be extract. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Database Management System (DBMS)</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Database Management Systems organize and structure data so that it can be retrieved and manipulating by users and application programmer. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Database Model: The data structures and access techniques provided by a particular DBMS are called as Data Model.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Hierarchical</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Network</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Relational </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Hierarchical data model: </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">- This model is like a hierarchical tree structure; used to construct a hierarchy of records in the form of nodes and branches. The data elements presnt in the structure of parent/ child relationship.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">- Every child has one parent.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">- You can see only one record at a time.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">- Retrieving the data in a Hierarchical database thus required navigating through the records,</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> Moving up, down, sideways one record at a time.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">- Example Windows Explorer</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">- Developed By IBM Named as Information Management System (IMS) in 1968</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The Drawback of Hierarchical data model </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">- It cannot handle a large data</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">- It’s not support many to many to relation </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Network data model </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">- The simple structure of a Hierarchical database became a disadvantage when the data had a more complex structure. In an order-processing database, for example, a single order might participate in three different parent/child relationships, linking the order to the customer who placed it, the salesperson who took it, and the product ordered. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The Network model extended the Hierarchical model by allowing a record to participate in multiple parent/child relationship </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Network databases had their disadvantages like Hierarchical database, they where very rigid. The set relationships and the structure of the records had to be specified in advance. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The Drawback of Network data model </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">- Changing the database structure typically required rebuilding the entire database. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Relational Model</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Data is organized in terms of rows and columns in a table knowns as relations</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * The position of a row in a table is of no importance.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * The intersection of row and column must give a single value and not a set of values.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Column name must be unique</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Row must be unique</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * It eliminated the explicit parent/child structures from the database, and instead of represented all data in the database as simple row/column tables of data values.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * A relational database is a database where all data visible to the user is organized strictly as tables of data values, and where all database operations work on these tables. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The publication of the paper “A relational Model of Data for Large Shared Database” by Dr. E.F. Codd in June 1970 in the “Communication of ACM” , set a trend for virgorous and extensive investigation into a theoretical frame work to support further work in the area of Data Modelling. The end result is the Relational Database Management System.</span></span><br /> <br /> </div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-27256023440814764602009-02-16T01:13:00.000-08:002009-02-16T01:19:05.368-08:00Passive-matrix and active-matrix addressed LCDs<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">A general purpose alphanumeric LCD, with two lines of 16 characters.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">LCDs with a small number of segments, such as those used in digital watches and pocket calculators, have individual electrical contacts for each segment. An external dedicated circuit supplies an electric charge to control each segment. This display structure is unwieldy for more than a few display elements.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Small monochrome displays such as those found in personal organizers, or older laptop screens have a passive-matrix structure employing super-twisted nematic (STN) or double-layer STN (DSTN) technology—the latter of which addresses a color-shifting problem with the former—and color-STN (CSTN)—wherein color is added by using an internal filter. Each row or column of the display has a single electrical circuit. The pixels are addressed one at a time by row and column addresses. This type of display is called passive-matrix addressed because the pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the benefit of a steady electrical charge. </span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">As the number of pixels (and, correspondingly, columns and rows) increases, this type of display becomes less feasible. Very slow response times and poor contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">High-resolution color displays such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions use an active matrix structure. A matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) is added to the polarizing and color filters. Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel. When a row line is activated, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and the correct voltage is driven onto all of the column lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is activated. All of the row lines are activated in sequence during a refresh operation. </span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Active-matrix addressed displays look "brighter" and "sharper" than passive-matrix addressed displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response times, producing much better images.</span></span><br /> <br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">A Casio 1.8" color TFT liquid crystal display which equips the Sony Cyber-shot DSC-P93A digital compact cameras</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Twisted nematic (TN)</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Twisted nematic displays contain liquid crystal elements which twist and untwist at varying degrees to allow light to pass through. When no voltage is applied to a TN liquid crystal cell, the light is polarized to pass through the cell. In proportion to the voltage applied, the LC cells twist up to 90 degrees changing the polarization and blocking the light's path. By properly adjusting the level of the voltage almost any grey level or transmission can be achieved.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">In-plane switching (IPS)</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">In-plane switching is an LCD technology which aligns the liquid crystal cells in a horizontal direction. In this method, the electrical field is applied through each end of the crystal, but this requires two transistors for each pixel instead of the single transistor needed for a standard thin-film transistor (TFT) display. These results in blocking more transmission area, thus requiring a brighter backlight, which will consume more power, making this type of display less desirable for notebook computers.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Vertical alignment (VA)</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Vertical alignment displays are a form of LC displays in which the liquid crystal material naturally exists in a horizontal state removing the need for extra transistors (as in IPS). When no voltage is applied the liquid crystal cell, it remains perpendicular to the substrate creating a black display. When voltage is applied, the liquid crystal cells shift to a horizontal position, parallel to the substrate, allowing light to pass through and create a white display. VA liquid crystal displays provide some of the same advantages as IPS panels, particularly an improved viewing angle and improved black level.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Blue Phase mode</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Blue phase LCDs do not require an LC top layer. Blue phase LCDs are new and very expensive, but provide a higher refresh rate than normal LCDs. Blue phase LCDs are currently and emerging technology, and not many people's household includes one. Normal LCDs are cost efficient and actually provide a better color view and sharper image, but do not provide the high refresh rate.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Quality control</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or unlit pixels which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead pixels respectively. Unlike integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with a few defective pixels are usually still usable. It is also economically prohibitive to discard a panel with just a few defective pixels because LCD panels are much larger than ICs. Manufacturers have different standards for determining a maximum acceptable number of defective pixels. The maximum acceptable number of defective pixels for LCD varies greatly. At one point, Samsung held a zero-tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold in Korea.[13] Currently, though, Samsung adheres to the less restrictive ISO 13406-2 standard.[14] Other companies have been known to tolerate as many as 11 dead pixels in their policies.[15] Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and customers. To regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the end user, ISO released the ISO 13406-2 standard.[16] However, not every LCD manufacturer conforms to the ISO standard and the ISO standard is quite often interpreted in different ways.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">LCD panels are more likely to have defects than most ICs due to their larger size. In the example to the right, a 300 mm SVGA LCD has 8 defects and a 150 mm wafer has only 3 defects. However, 134 of the 137 dies on the wafer will be acceptable, whereas rejection of the LCD panel would be a 0% yield. The standard is much higher now due to fierce competition between manufacturers and improved quality control. An SVGA LCD panel with 4 defective pixels is usually considered defective and customers can request an exchange for a new one. Some manufacturers, notably in South Korea where some of the largest LCD panel manufacturers, such as LG, are located, now have "zero defective pixel guarantees", which is an extra screening process which can then determine "A" and "B" grade panels. Many manufacturers would replace a product even with one defective pixel. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Even where such guarantees do not exist, the location of defective pixels is important. A display with only a few defective pixels may be unacceptable if the defective pixels are near each other. Manufacturers may also relax their replacement criteria when defective pixels are in the center of the viewing area.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">LCD panels also have defects known as Mura, which look like a small-scale crack with very small changes in luminance or color. It is most visible in dark or black areas of displayed scenes. Defects in various LCD panel components can cause Mura effect. </span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Zero-power (bistable) displays</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The zenithal bistable device (ZBD) developed by QinetiQ (formerly DERA), can retain an image without power. The crystals may exist in one of two stable orientations (Black and "White") and power is only required to change the image. ZBD Displays is a spin-off company from QinetiQ who manufacture both grayscale and color ZBD devices.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">A French company, Nemoptic, has developed another zero-power, paper-like LCD technology which has been mass-produced since July 2003. This technology is intended for use in applications such as Electronic Shelf Labels, E-books, E-documents, E-newspapers, E-dictionaries, Industrial sensors, Ultra-Mobile PCs, etc. Zero-power LCDs are a category of electronic paper.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Kent Displays has also developed a "no power" display that uses Polymer Stabilized Cholesterics Liquid Crystals (ChLCD). The major drawback to the ChLCD is slow refresh rate, especially with low temperatures.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">In 2004 researchers at the University of Oxford demonstrated two new types of zero-power bistable LCDs based on Zenithal bistable techniques.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Several bistable technologies, like the 360° BTN and the bistable cholesteric, depend mainly on the bulk properties of the liquid crystal (LC) and use standard strong anchoring, with alignment films and LC mixtures similar to the traditional monostable materials. Other bistable technologies (i.e. Binem Technology) are based mainly on the surface properties and need specific weak anchoring materials.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Problems</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Dead pixels</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">A few LCD monitors are produced with "dead pixels". Due to the desire for affordable monitors, most manufacturers sell monitors with dead pixels. Almost all manufacturers have clauses in their warranties which claim monitors with fewer than some number of dead pixels are not broken and will not be replaced. The dead pixels are usually stuck with the green, red, and/or blue sub-pixels either individually always stuck on or off.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Like image persistence, this can sometimes be partially or fully reversed by using the same method listed below; however the chance of success is far lower than with a "stuck" pixel. It can also sometimes be repaired by physically flicking the pixel; however it is always a possibility for someone to use too much force and rupture the weak screen internals doing this.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Stuck pixels</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">LCD monitors, while lacking phosphor screens and thus immune to phosphor burn-in, have a similar condition known as image persistence, where the pixels of the LCD monitor can "remember" a particular color and become "stuck" and unable to change. Unlike phosphor burn-in, however, image persistence can sometimes be reversed partially or completely. This is accomplished by rapidly displaying varying colors to "wake up" the stuck pixels.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Phosphor burn-in</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Phosphor burn-in is localized aging of the phosphor layer of a CRT screen where it has displayed a static bright image for many years. This results in a faint permanent image on the screen, even when turned off. In severe cases it can even be possible to read some of the text, though this only occurs where the displayed text remained the same for years.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">This was once a common phenomenon in single purpose business computers. It can still be an issue with CRT displays when used to display the same image for years at a time, but modern computers aren't normally used this way anymore, so the problem is not a significant issue. The issue seems to have become exaggerated in popular opinion. The only systems that suffered the defect were ones displaying the same image for years, and with these the presence of burn-in was not a noticeable effect when in use, since it coincided with the displayed image perfectly. It only became a significant issue in three situations:</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• when some heavily used monitors were reused at home, </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• or re-used for display purposes </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• In some high-security applications (but only those where the high-security data displayed did not change for years at a time). </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Screen savers were developed as a means to avoid burn-in, but are unnecessary for CRTs today, despite their popularity.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Phosphor burn-in can be gradually removed on damaged CRT displays by displaying an all-white screen with brightness and contrast turned up full. This is a slow procedure and is usually effective.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Plasma burn-in</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Burn-in re-emerged as an issue with early plasma displays, which are more vulnerable to this than CRTs. Screen savers with moving images may be used with these to minimize localized burn. Periodic change of the colour scheme in use also helps.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Glare</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Glare is a problem caused by the relationship between lighting and screen, or by using monitors in bright sunlight. Matte finish LCDs and flat screen CRTs are less prone to reflected glare than conventional curved CRTs or glossy LCDs, and aperture grille CRTs, which are curved on one axis only, are less prone to it than other CRTs curved on both axes.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">If the problem persists despite moving the monitor or adjusting lighting, a filter using a mesh of very fine black wires may be placed on the screen to reduce glare and improve contrast. These filters were popular in the late 1980s. They do also reduce light output.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The above will only work against reflective glare; direct glare (such as sunlight) will completely wash out most monitors' internal lighting, and can only be dealt with by use of a hood or transreflective LCD.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Color misregistration</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">With exceptions of correctly aligned video projectors and stacked LEDs, most display technologies, especially LCD, have an inherent misregistration of the color channels, that is, the centers of the red, green, and blue dots do not line up perfectly. Sub-pixel rendering depends on this misalignment; technologies making use of this include the Apple II from 1976, and more recently Microsoft (Clear Type, 1998) and XFree86 (X Rendering Extension).</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Incomplete spectrum</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">RGB displays produce most of the visible color spectrum, but not all. This can be a problem where good color matching to non-RGB images is needed. This issue is common to all monitor technologies with 3 color channels.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Display interfaces</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Computer terminals</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Early CRT-based VDUs (Visual Display Units) such as the DEC VT05 without graphics capabilities gained the label glass teletypes, because of the functional similarity to their electromechanical predecessors.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Some historic computers had no modern display, using a teletype, modified electric typewriter, or printer instead.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Composite signal</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Early home computers such as the Apple II and the Commodore 64 used a composite signal output to drive a CRT monitor or TV. This resulted in degraded resolution due to compromises in the broadcast TV standards used. This method is still used with video game consoles. The Commodore monitor had S-Video input to improve resolution.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Digital monitors</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Early digital monitors are sometimes known as TTLs because the voltages on the red, green, and blue inputs are compatible with TTL logic chips. Later digital monitors support LVDS, or TMDS protocols.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">TTL monitors</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">An amber monochrome computer monitor, manufactured in 2007, which uses a 15-pin SVGA connector just like a standard color monitor.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Monitors used with the MDA, Hercules, CGA, and EGA graphics adapters used in early IBM PC's (Personal Computer) and clones were controlled via TTL logic. Such monitors can usually be identified by a male DB-9 connector used on the video cable. The disadvantage of TTL monitors was the limited number of colors available due to the low number of digital bits used for video signaling.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Modern monochrome monitors use the same 15-pin SVGA connector as standard color monitors. They are capable of displaying 32-bit grayscale at 1024x768 resolutions, making them able to interface with modern computers.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">TTL Monochrome monitors only made use of five out of the nine pins. One pin was used as a ground, and two pins were used for horizontal/vertical synchronization. The electron gun was controlled by two separate digital signals, a video bit, and an intensity bit to control the brightness of the drawn pixels. Only four shades were possible; black, dim, medium or bright.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">CGA monitors used four digital signals to control the three electron guns used in color CRTs, in a signaling method known as RGBI, or Red Green and Blue, plus Intensity. Each of the three RGB colors can be switched on or off independently. The intensity bit increases the brightness of all guns that are switched on, or if no colors are switched on the intensity bit will switch on all guns at a very low brightness to produce a dark grey. A CGA monitor is only capable of rendering 16 colors. The CGA monitor was not exclusively used by PC based hardware. The Commodore 128 could also utilize CGA monitors. Many CGA monitors were capable of displaying composite video via a separate jack.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">EGA monitors used six digital signals to control the three electron guns in a signaling method known as RrGgBb. Unlike CGA, each gun is allocated its own intensity bit. This allowed each of the three primary colors to have four different states (off, soft, medium, and bright) resulting in 64 colors.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Although not supported in the original IBM specification, many vendors of clone graphics adapters have implemented backwards monitor compatibility and auto detection. For example, EGA cards produced by Paradise could operate as an MDA or CGA adapter if a monochrome or CGA monitor was used in place of an EGA monitor. Many CGA cards were also capable of operating as MDA or Hercules card if a monochrome monitor was used.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Single color screens</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Display colors other than white were very popular on monochrome monitors in the 1980s. These colors were more comfortable on the eye. This was particularly an issue at the time due to the lower refresh rates in use at the time causing flicker, plus the use of less comfortable color schemes than used with most of today's software.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Green screens were the most popular color, with orange displays also available. 'Paper white' </span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Modern technology</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Analog monitors</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Most modern computer displays can show an infinite number of different colors in the RGB color space by changing red, green, and blue analog video signals in continuously variable intensities. These have been almost exclusively progressive scan since the middle 1980s. While many early plasma and liquid crystal displays have exclusively analog connections, all signals in such monitors pass through a completely digital section prior to display.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">While many similar connectors (13W3, BNC, etc…) were used on other platforms, the IBM PC and compatible systems long ago standardized on the VGA connector. All of these connectors deliver nearly flawless high resolution video which vastly outclasses that of a TV.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Digital and analog combination</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The first popular external digital monitor connectors, such as DVI-I and the various breakout connectors based on it, included both analog signals compatible with VGA and digital signals compatible with new flat-screen displays in the same connector. This made the connector nearly painless for users of both technologies.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Digital monitors</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Newer connectors are being made which have digital only video signals. Many of these, such as HDMI and Display Port, also feature integrated audio and data connections. One less popular feature most of these connectors share are DRM encrypted signals, although the HDCP technology responsible for implementing the protection was necessarily rudimentary to meet cost constraints, and was primarily a barrier aimed towards dissuading average consumers from creating exact duplicates without a noticeable loss in image quality.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Configuration and usage</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Multiple monitors</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">More than one monitor can be attached to the same device. Each display can operate in two basic configurations:</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The simpler of the two is mirroring (sometimes cloning,) in which at least two displays are showing the same image. It is commonly used for presentations. Hardware with only one video output can be tricked into doing this with an external splitter device, commonly built into many video projectors as a pass through connection. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The more sophisticated of the two, extension allows each monitor to display a different image, so as to form a contiguous area of arbitrary shape. This requires software support and extra hardware, and may be locked out on "low end" products by cripple ware. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Primitive software is incapable of recognizing multiple displays, so spanning must be used, in which case a very large virtual display is created, and then pieces are split into multiple video outputs for separate monitors. Hardware with only one video output can be tricked into doing this with an expensive external splitter device; this is most often used for very large composite displays made from many smaller monitors placed edge to edge. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Multiple video sources</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Multiple devices can be connected to the same monitor using a video switch. In the case of computers, this usually takes the form of a "Keyboard Video Mouse switch" (KVM) switch, which is designed to switch all of the user interface devices for a workstation between different computers at once.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Virtual displays</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Much software and video hardware supports the ability to create additional, virtual pieces of desktop, commonly known as workspaces.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Other specifications of monitors</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Screen size</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Diagonal size</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">For any rectangular section on a round tube, the diagonal measurement is also the diameter of the tube</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The size of a display is typically given as the distance between two opposite screen corners. One problem with this method is that it does not distinguish between the aspect ratios of monitors with identical diagonal sizes, in spite of the fact that a shape of a given diagonal span's area decreases as it becomes less square. For example, a 4:3 21" monitor has an area of ~211 square inches, while a 16:9 21" widescreen has an area of only ~188 square inches.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">This method of measurement is from the first types of CRT television, when round picture tubes were in common use. Being circular, they only needed to use their diameter to describe their tube size. When round tubes were used to display rectangular images, the diagonal measurement was equivalent to the round tube's diameter. This method continued even when CRT tubes were manufactured as rounded rectangles.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Another historically problematic practice is the direct measurement of a monitor's imaging element as its quoted size in publicity and advertising materials. Especially on CRT displays, a substantial portion of the imaging element is concealed behind the case's bezel or shroud in order to hide areas outside the monitor's safe area due to over scan. Seen as deceptive, widespread consumer objection and lawsuits eventually forced most manufacturers to instead measure viewable size.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Additional features</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Power saving</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Most modern monitors will switch to a power-saving mode if no video-input signal is received. This allows modern operating systems to turn off a monitor after a specified period of inactivity. This also extends the monitor's service life.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Some monitors will also switch themselves off after a time period on standby.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Most modern laptops provide a method of screen dimming after periods of inactivity or when the battery is in use. This extends battery life and reduces wear.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Integrated accessories</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Many monitors have other accessories (or connections for them) integrated. This places standard ports within easy reach and eliminates the need for another separate hub, camera, microphone, or set of speakers. Integrated accessories are often of substandard quality.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Glossy screen</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Some displays, especially newer LCD monitors, replace the traditional anti-glare matte finish with a glossy one. While this is ostensibly done to increase saturation and sharpness, its benefits and drawbacks are extremely contentious among consumers.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Directional screen</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Narrow viewing angle screens are used in some security conscious applications.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Autopolyscopic screen</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">A specially designed directional screen which generates 3D images without headgear, distortion or eyestrain.</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Touch screen</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">These monitors use touching of the screen as an input method. Items can be selected or moved with a finger, and finger gestures may be used to convey commands. This does however mean the screen needs frequent cleaning due to image degradation from fingerprints.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Tablet screens</span></span><br /><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">A combination of a monitor with a graphics tablet. Such devices are typically unresponsive to touch, but may offer sensitivity to one or more special tools' pressure, tilt, controls, opposite ends, and multiple tools.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Performance measurements</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The performance parameters of a monitor are:</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Luminance, measured in candelas per square meter (cd/m²). </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Viewable image size, measured diagonally. For CRTs the viewable size is typically one inch (25 mm) smaller than the tube itself. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Display resolution, the number of distinct pixels in each dimension that can be displayed. Maximum resolution is limited by dot pitch. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Dot pitch, describes the distance between pixels of the same color in millimeters. In general, the smaller the dot pitch (e.g. 0.24 mm), the sharper the picture will appear. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Refresh rate, the number of times in a second that a display is illuminated. Maximum refresh rate is limited by response time. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Response time, the amount of time a pixel in a monitor takes to go from active (black) to inactive (white) and back to active (black) again. It is measured in milliseconds (ms). Lower numbers mean faster transitions and therefore fewer visible image artifacts. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Contrast ratio, the contrast ratio is defined as the ratio of the luminosity of the brightest color (white) to that of the darkest color (black) that the monitor is capable of producing. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Power consumption, measured in watts (W). </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Aspect ratios, which is the horizontal size compared to the vertical size, e.g. 4:3 is the standard aspect ratio, so that a screen with a width of 1024 pixels will have a height of 768 pixels. A widescreen display can have an aspect ratio of 16:9, which means a display that is 1024 pixels wide will have a height of 576 pixels. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Viewing angle, the ability to be seen from an angle without excessive degradation to the image, measured in degrees horizontally and vertically. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Comparison</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">CRT</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Pros:</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Very high contrast ratio (20,000:1 or greater, much higher than many modern LCDs and plasma displays.) </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• High speed response </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Excellent Additive color, wide gamut and low black level limited only by external environment. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Can display natively in almost any resolution and refresh rate </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Near zero color, saturation, contrast or brightness distortion. Excellent viewing angle. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• No input lag </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• A reliable, proven display technology. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Cons:</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Large size and weight (a 40" unit weighs over 200lbs) </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Geometric distortion in non-flat CRTs </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Older CRTs are prone to burn-in. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Warm up time required prior to peak luminance and proper color rendering. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Greater power consumption than similarly sized displays, such as LCD. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Screened devices are prone to moiré effect at highest resolution (does not apply to triple-tube projection) </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Intolerant of damp conditions, with dangerous wet failure characteristics. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Small risk of implosion (due to internal vacuum) if the picture tube is broken in aging sets. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Use under Lower refresh rates causes noticeable flicker </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Internal lethally high voltages </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Flyback transformer produces characteristic high-pitched noise when close to set. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Increasingly difficult to obtain models at HDTV resolutions, due to consumers' perception of antiquity. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> LCD</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Pros:</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Very compact and light </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Low power consumption </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• No geometric distortion </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Rugged </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Little or no flicker depending on backlight </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Cons:</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Low contrast ratio. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Limited viewing angle. This causes color, saturation, contrast and brightness to vary, even within the intended viewing angle from mere variations in posture. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Uneven backlighting in some monitors can cause brightness distortion, especially toward the edges. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Slow response times, which cause smearing and ghosting artifacts (although many modern LCDs have response times of 8ms or less). </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Only has one native resolution. Displaying other resolutions requires a video scalar, which degrades image quality at lower resolutions. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Fixed bit depth, many cheaper LCDs are incapable of true color. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Input lag </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Somewhat more expensive than CRT </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Dead pixels are possible during manufacturing </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Plasma</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Pros:</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Compact and light </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• High contrast ratios (10,000:1 or greater) </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• High speed response </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Excellent color, wide gamut and low black level. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Near zero color, saturation, contrast or brightness distortion. Excellent viewing angle. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• No geometric distortion </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Highly scalable, with less weight gain per increase in size (from less than 30 inches wide to the world's largest at 150 inches). </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Cons:</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Large pixel pitch means either low resolution or a large screen </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Noticeable flicker when viewed at close range </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• High operating temperature </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Somewhat more expensive than LCD </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• High power consumption </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Only has one native resolution. Displaying other resolutions requires a video scalar, which degrades image quality at lower resolutions. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Fixed bit depth </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Input lag </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Older PDPs are prone to burn-in </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Dead pixels are possible during manufacturing </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Penetron</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Pros:</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• See-through for transparent HUDs (although LCDs are also transparent, they are not self-lighting.) </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Very high contrast ratios. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Extremely sharp. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Cons:</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Color displays are limited to about four tints. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Orders of magnitude more expensive than the other display technologies listed here. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Display applications</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Television and digital television </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Liquid crystal display television (LCD TV) </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• LCD projector </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Computer monitor </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Aircraft Instrumentation displays (see glass cockpit) </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Manufacturers</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Acer (company) </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Aoc </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• AU Optronics </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Barco </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• BenQ </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Casio </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Chi Mei Optoelectronics </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• CoolTouch Monitors </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Corning Inc. </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Dell </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Eizo </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Epson </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Fujitsu </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Hansol </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• HP </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• iiyama </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• International Display Works </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• JVC </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Kyocera </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Lenovo </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• LG Display </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• LXD Incorporated </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Medion </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• NEC Display Solutions </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Panasonic (Matsushita) </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Polaroid Corporation </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Power light </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Samsung Electronics </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Sharp Corporation </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• S-LCD </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Sony </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Soyo </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Toshiba </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Videocon </span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• View sonic </span></span><br /> <br /> </div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-52821862060318726332009-02-16T01:04:00.000-08:002009-02-16T01:12:57.209-08:00Liquid crystal display<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">A liquid crystal display (LCD) is an electro-optical amplitude modulator realized as a thin, flat display device made up of any number of color or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. It is often utilized in battery-powered electronic devices because it uses very small amounts of electric power. A comprehensive classification of the various types and electro-optical modes of LCDs is provided in the article LCD classification</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">1. Polarizing filter film with a vertical axis to polarize light as it enters.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">2. Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes will determine the shapes that will appear when the LCD is turned ON. Vertical ridges etched on the surface are smooth.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">3. Twisted nematic liquid crystal.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">4. Glass substrate with common electrode film (ITO) with horizontal ridges to line up with the horizontal filter.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">5. Polarizing filter film with a horizontal axis to block/pass light.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">6. Reflective surface to send light back to viewer. (In a backlit LCD, this layer is replaced with a light source.)</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. With no actual liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The surfaces of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal material are treated so as to align the liquid crystal molecules in a particular direction. This treatment typically consists of a thin polymer layer that is unidirectional rubbed using, for example, a cloth. The direction of the liquid crystal alignment is then defined by the direction of rubbing. Electrodes are made of a transparent conductor called Indium Tin Oxide (ITO).</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Before applying an electric field, the orientation of the liquid crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces. In a twisted nematic device (still the most common liquid crystal device), the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> Because the liquid crystal material is birefringent, light passing through one polarizing filter is rotated by the liquid crystal helix as it passes through the liquid crystal layer, allowing it to pass through the second polarized filter. Half of the incident light is absorbed by the first polarizing filter, but otherwise the entire assembly is reasonably transparent.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, a torque acts to align the liquid crystal molecules parallel to the electric field, distorting the helical structure (this is resisted by elastic forces since the molecules are constrained at the surfaces). This reduces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears grey. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The optical effect of a twisted nematic device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Because of this, these devices are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). These devices can also be operated between parallel polarizers, in which case the bright and dark states are reversed. The voltage-off dark state in this configuration appears blotchy, however, because of small variations of thickness across the device.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">When a large number of pixels are needed in a display, it is not technically possible to drive each directly since then each pixel would require independent electrodes. Instead, the display is multiplexed. In a multiplexed display, electrodes on one side of the display are grouped and wired together (typically in columns), and each group gets its own voltage source. On the other side, the electrodes are also grouped (typically in rows), with each group getting a voltage sink. The groups are designed so each pixel has a unique, unshared combination of source and sink. The electronics or the software driving the electronics then turns on sinks in sequence, and drives sources for the pixels of each sink.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Specifications</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Important factors to consider when evaluating an LCD monitor:</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Resolution: The horizontal and vertical size expressed in pixels (e.g., 1024x768). Unlike monochrome CRT monitors, LCD monitors have a native-supported resolution for best display effect.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Dot pitch: The distance between the centers of two adjacent pixels. The smaller the dot pitches size, the fewer granularities are present, resulting in a sharper image. Dot pitch may be the same both vertically and horizontally, or different (less common).</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Viewable size: The size of an LCD panel measured on the diagonal (more specifically known as active display area).</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Response time: The minimum time necessary to change a pixel's color or brightness. Response time is also divided into rise and fall time. For LCD Monitors, this is measured in btb (black to black) or gtg (gray to gray). These different types of measurements make comparison difficult.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Refresh rate: The number of times per second in which the monitor draws the data it is being given. A refresh rate that is too low can cause flickering and will be more noticeable on larger monitors.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Many high-end LCD televisions now have a 120 Hz refresh rate (current and former NTSC countries only). This allows for less distortion when movies filmed at 24 frames per second (fps) are viewed due to the elimination of telecine (3:2 pull down). The rate of 120 was chosen as the least common multiple of 24 fps (cinema) and 30 fps (TV).</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Matrix type: Active TFT or Passive.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Viewing angle: (coll., more specifically known as viewing direction).</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Color support: How many types of colors are supported (coll., more specifically known as color gamut).</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Brightness: The amount of light emitted from the display (coll., more specifically known as luminance).</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Contrast ratio: The ratio of the intensity of the brightest bright to the darkest dark.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Aspect ratio: The ratio of the width to the height (for example, 4:3, 16:9 or 16:10).</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Input ports (e.g., DVI, VGA, LVDS, Display Port, or even S-Video and HDMI).</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Brief history</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * 1888: Friedrich Reinitzer (1858-1927) discovers the liquid crystalline nature of cholesterol extracted from carrots (that is, two melting points and generation of colors) and published his findings at a meeting of the Vienna Chemical Society on May 3, 1888 </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * 1904: Otto Lehmann publishes his work "Flüssige Krystalle" (Liquid Crystals). </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * 1911: Charles Mauguin first experiments of liquids crystals confined between plates in thin layers. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * 1922: George Friedel describes the structure and properties of liquid crystals and classified them in 3 types (nematics, smectics and cholesterics). </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * 1936: The Marconi Wireless Telegraph company patents the first practical application of the technology, "The Liquid Crystal Light Valve". </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * 1962: The first major English language publication on the subject "Molecular Structure and Properties of Liquid Crystals", by Dr. George W. Gray. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * 1962: Richard Williams of RCA found that liquid crystals had some interesting electro-optic characteristics and he realized an electro-optical effect by generating stripe-patterns in a thin layer of liquid crystal material by the application of a voltage. This effect is based on an electro-hydrodynamic instability forming what is now called “Williams domains” inside the liquid crystal. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * 1964: In the fall of 1964 George H. Heilmeier, then working in the RCA laboratories on the effect discovered by Williams realized the switching of colors by field-induced realignment of dichroic dyes in a homeotropically oriented liquid crystal. Practical problems with this new electro-optical effect made Heilmeier to continue work on scattering effects in liquid crystals and finally the realization of the first operational liquid crystal display based on what he called the dynamic scattering mode (DSM).</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * Application of a voltage to a DSM display switches the initially clear transparent liquid crystal layer into a milky turbid state. DSM displays could be operated in transmissive and in reflective mode but they required a considerable current to flow for their operation. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * 1960s: Pioneering work on liquid crystals was undertaken in the late 1960s by the UK's Royal Radar Establishment at Malvern. The team at RRE supported ongoing work by George Gray and his team at the University of Hull who ultimately discovered the cyan biphenyl liquid crystals (which had correct stability and temperature properties for application in LCDs). </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * 1970: On December 4, 1970, the twisted nematic field effect in liquid crystals was filed for patent by Hoffmann-LaRoche in Switzerland, (Swiss patent No. 532 261) with Wolfgang Helfrich and Martin Schadt (then working for the Central Research Laboratories) listed as inventors. Hoffmann-La Roche then licensed the invention to the Swiss manufacturer Brown, Boveri & Cie who produced displays for wrist watches during the 1970s and also to Japanese electronics industry which soon produced the first digital quartz wrist watches with TN-LCDs and numerous other products.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * James Fergason at the Westinghouse Research Laboratories in Pittsburgh while working with Sardari Arora and Alfred Saupe at Kent State University Liquid Crystal Institute filed an identical patent in the USA on April 22, 1971. In 1971 the company of Fergason ILIXCO (now LXD Incorporated) produced the first LCDs based on the TN-effect, which soon superseded the poor-quality DSM types due to improvements of lower operating voltages and lower power consumption.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * 1972: The first active-matrix liquid crystal display panel was produced in the United States by T. Peter Brody.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * 2007: In the 4Q of 2007 for the first time LCD surpassed CRT in worldwide sales.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> * 2008: LCD TVs are the main stream with 50% market share of the 200 million TVs forecast to ship globally in 2008 according to Display Bank. </span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">A detailed description of the origins and the complex history of liquid crystal displays from the perspective of an insider during the early days has been published by Joseph A. Castellano in "Liquid Gold, The Story of Liquid Crystal Displays and the Creation of an Industry" . Another report on the origins and history of LCD from a different perspective has been published by Hiroshi Kawamoto, available at the IEEE History Center.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Color displays</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Comparison of the OLPC XO-1 display (left) with a typical color LCD. The images show 1×1 mm of each screen. A typical LCD addresses groups of 3 locations as pixels. The XO-1 display addresses each location as a separate pixel.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">In color LCDs each individual pixel is divided into three cells, or subpixels, which are colored red, green, and blue, respectively, by additional filters (pigment filters, dye filters and metal oxide filters). Each subpixel can be controlled independently to yield thousands or millions of possible colors for each pixel. CRT monitors employ a similar 'subpixel' structures via phosphors, although the electron beam employed in CRTs do not hit exact 'subpixels'.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Color components may be arrayed in various pixel geometries, depending on the monitor's usage. If the software knows which type of geometry is being used in a given LCD, this can be used to increase the apparent resolution of the monitor through subpixel rendering. This technique is especially useful for text anti-aliasing.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">To reduce smudging in a moving picture when pixels do not respond quickly enough to color changes, so-called pixel overdrive may be used.</span></span><br /> <br /> </div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-8631199789094173662009-02-16T01:00:00.000-08:002009-02-16T01:04:04.856-08:00The future of CRT technology<div style="text-align: justify;"> <meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"> <meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"> <meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 12"> <meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 12"> <link style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" rel="File-List" 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mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.0in 1.0in 1.0in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif";} </style> <![endif]--> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">CRT screens have much deeper cabinets compared to LCD screens for a given screen size. LCDs have generally inferior color rendition due to the <span style="text-decoration: none;">fluorescent lights</span> that can be used as <span style="text-decoration: none;">backlights</span>, even though they can be brighter overall. CRTs can be useful for displaying photos with a high pixel per unit area and correct color balance. The end of most high-end CRT production in the mid 2000s (including high-end Sony, and Mitsubishi product lines) means an erosion of the CRT's capability.<sup><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></sup> Samsung did not introduce any CRT models for the 2008 model year at the 2008 Consumer Electronics Show and on <span style="text-decoration: none;">February 4</span>, <span style="text-decoration: none;">2008</span> Samsung removed their 30" wide screen CRTs from their North American website and has not replaced them with new models.<sup><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></sup><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">General, rear-projection displays and LCDs require less power per display area, but <span style="text-decoration: none;">plasma displays</span> consume as much as or more than CRTs.<sup><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></sup> However, CRTs still find adherents in <span style="text-decoration: none;">computer gaming </span><sup><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></sup> because of higher resolution per initial cost and fast response time. CRTs are often used in psychological research that requires precise recording of reaction times. CRTs are also still popular in the printing and broadcasting industries as well as in the professional video, photography, and graphics fields due to their greater color fidelity and contrast, better resolution when displaying moving images, and better view from angles, although improvements in LCD technology increasingly alleviate these concerns. The demand for CRT screens is falling rapidly,<sup><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></sup> and producers are responding to this trend. For example, in 2005 Sony announced that they would stop the production of CRT computer displays. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Similarly, German manufacturer <span style="text-decoration: none;">Loewe</span> ceased production of CRT TVs in December 2005. It has been common to replace CRT-based televisions and monitors in as little as 5–6 years, although they generally are capable of satisfactory performance for a much longer time.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <div style="text-align: justify;"> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 115%; font-family: arial;" lang="EN">In the <span style="text-decoration: none;">United Kingdom</span>, <span style="text-decoration: none;">DSG (Dixons)</span>, the largest retailer of domestic electronic equipment, reported that CRT models made up 80–90% of the volume of televisions sold at Christmas 2004 and 15–20% a year later, and that they were expected to be less than 5% at the end of 2006. Dixons have announced that they will cease selling CRT televisions in 2007.<sup><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></sup> Display Search has reported that in the 4Q of 2007 LCDs surpassed CRTs in worldwide sales though CRTs then outsold LCDs in the 1Q of 2008. </span></span></div> Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-23695277777745356852009-02-16T00:49:00.000-08:002009-02-16T00:59:57.225-08:00Cathode ray tube (CRT)<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Cathode ray tube (CRT)</span></span>
<br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 320px; height: 180px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1bwZSZnDh56zJtoRuVHUDqQ4WEcC8a9tJyKalWNHMChL5YK973Rh24yVOpODWzcZxNOp17pMKzhyphenhyphenhPmfxJpEPodACEiWqK9_faTPv1BBs2ySE7S-EwO-38yhK2v1CLkP1tiVRAFR31hM/s320/CATHODE+RAY+TUBE.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5303315370944768882" border="0" /></span></span>
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4 5 3 5 4 6 3 2 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:roman; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-1610611985 1107304683 0 0 159 0;} @font-face {font-family:Calibri; panose-1:2 15 5 2 2 2 4 3 2 4; mso-font-charset:0; mso-generic-font-family:swiss; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-1610611985 1073750139 0 0 159 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-unhide:no; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; margin-top:0in; margin-right:0in; margin-bottom:10.0pt; margin-left:0in; line-height:115%; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman";} .MsoChpDefault {mso-style-type:export-only; mso-default-props:yes; font-size:10.0pt; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri;} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.0in 1.0in 1.0in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif";} </style> <![endif]--> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">The <span style="">cathode ray tube (CRT)</span> is a <span style="text-decoration: none;">vacuum tube</span> containing an <span style="text-decoration: none;">electron gun</span> (a source of electrons) and a <span style="text-decoration: none;">fluorescent</span> screen, with internal or external means to accelerate and deflect the electron beam, used to form images in the form of light emitted from the fluorescent screen. The image may represent electrical <span style="text-decoration: none;">waveforms</span> (<span style="text-decoration: none;">oscilloscope</span>), pictures (television, <span style="text-decoration: none;">computer monitor</span>), <span style="text-decoration: none;">radar</span> targets and others.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">The single electron beam can be processed in such a way as to display moving pictures in natural colors.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">The CRT uses an evacuated glass envelope which is large, deep, heavy, and relatively fragile. Display technologies without these disadvantages, such as flat <span style="text-decoration: none;">plasma screens</span>, <span style="text-decoration: none;">liquid crystal displays</span>, <span style="text-decoration: none;">DLP</span>, <span style="text-decoration: none;">OLED</span> displays have replaced CRTs in many applications and are becoming increasingly common as costs decline.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">An exception to the typical bowl-shaped CRT would be the flat CRTs<sup><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></sup> used by <span style="text-decoration: none;">Sony</span> in their <span style="text-decoration: none;">Watchman</span> series (the <span style="text-decoration: none;">FD-210</span> was introduced in 1982). One of the last flat-CRT models was the <span style="text-decoration: none;">FD-120A</span>. The CRT in these units was flat with the <span style="text-decoration: none;">electron gun</span> located roughly at right angles below the display surface thus requiring sophisticated electronics to create an undistorted picture free from effects such as <span style="text-decoration: none;">key stoning</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><script type="text/javascript"> //<![CDATA[ if (window.showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(); } //]]> </script><a name="General_description"></a>General description<o:p></o:p></span></u></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">The earliest version of the CRT was invented by the German physicist <span style="text-decoration: none;">Ferdinand Braun</span> in 1897 and is also known as the 'Braun tube'.<sup><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></sup> It was a <span style="text-decoration: none;">cold-cathode</span> <span style="text-decoration: none;">diode</span>, a modification of the <span style="text-decoration: none;">Crookes tube</span> with a <span style="text-decoration: none;">phosphor</span>-coated screen. The first version to use a hot cathode was developed by <span style="text-decoration: none;">John B. Johnson</span> (who gave his name to the term <span style="text-decoration: none;">Johnson noise</span>) and Harry Weiner Weinhart of Western Electric, and became a commercial product in 1922. The <span style="text-decoration: none;">cathode rays</span> are now known to be a beam of <span style="text-decoration: none;">electrons</span> emitted from a heated <span style="text-decoration: none;">cathode</span> inside a <span style="text-decoration: none;">vacuum tube</span> and accelerated by a <span style="text-decoration: none;">potential difference</span> between this cathode and an <span style="text-decoration: none;">anode</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>The screen is covered with a <span style="text-decoration: none;">phosphorescent coating</span> (often <span style="text-decoration: none;">transition metals</span> or <span style="text-decoration: none;">rare earth elements</span>), which emits visible light when <span style="text-decoration: none;">excited</span> by high-energy electrons. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">The beam is <span style="text-decoration: none;">deflected</span> either by a <span style="text-decoration: none;">magnetic</span> or an <span style="text-decoration: none;">electric field</span> to move the bright dot to the required position on the screen.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">In <span style="text-decoration: none;">television sets</span> and <span style="text-decoration: none;">computer monitors</span> the entire front area of the tube is scanned systematically in a fixed pattern called a <span style="text-decoration: none;">raster</span>. An image is produced by modulating the intensity of the electron beam with a received <span style="text-decoration: none;">video signal</span> (or another signal derived from it). In all CRT TV receivers except some very early models, the beam is deflected by <span style="">magnetic deflection</span>, a varying magnetic field generated by coils (the <span style="">magnetic yoke</span>), driven by electronic circuits, around the neck of the tube.</span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CPLANET%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><link rel="themeData" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CPLANET%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx"><link rel="colorSchemeMapping" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CPLANET%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_colorschememapping.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> 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mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif";} </style> <![endif]--> </p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">The source of the electron beam is the <span style="text-decoration: none;">electron gun</span>, which produces a stream of electrons through <span style="text-decoration: none;">thermionic emission</span>, and focuses it into a thin beam. The gun is located in the narrow, cylindrical neck at the extreme rear of a CRT and has electrical connecting pins, usually arranged in a circular configuration, extending from its end. These pins provide external connections to the cathode, to various grid elements in the gun used to focus and modulate the beam, and, in electrostatic deflection CRTs, to the deflection plates. Since the CRT is a <span style="text-decoration: none;">hot-cathode</span> device, these pins also provide connections to one or more <span style="text-decoration: none;">filament heaters</span> within the electron gun. When a CRT is operating, the heaters can often be seen glowing orange through the glass walls of the CRT neck. The need for these heaters to 'warm up' causes a delay between the time that a CRT is first turned on, and the time that a display becomes visible. In older tubes, this could take fifteen seconds or more; modern CRT displays have fast-starting circuits which produce an image within about two seconds, using either briefly increased heater current or elevated cathode voltage. Once the CRT has warmed up, the heaters stay on continuously. The electrodes are often covered with a <span style="text-decoration: none;">black layer</span>, a patented process used by all major CRT manufacturers to improve electron density.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">The electron gun accelerates not only electrons but also ions present in the imperfect <span style="text-decoration: none;">vacuum</span> (some of which result from <span style="text-decoration: none;">out gassing</span> of the internal tube components). The ions, being much heavier than electrons, are deflected much less by the magnetic or electrostatic fields used to position the electron beam. Ions striking the screen damage it; to prevent this electron gun can be positioned slightly off the axis of the tube so that the ions strike the side of the CRT instead of the screen. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Permanent magnets (the <span style=""><span style="text-decoration: none;">ion trap</span></span>) deflect the lighter electrons so that they strike the screen. Some very old TV sets without an ion trap show browning of the center of the screen, known as ion burn. The aluminum coating used in later CRTs reduced the need for an ion trap.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">When electrons strike the poorly-conductive phosphor layer on the glass CRT, it becomes electrically charged, and tends to repel electrons, reducing brightness (this effect is known as "sticking"). To prevent this interior side of the phosphor layer can be covered with a layer of <span style="text-decoration: none;">aluminum</span> connected to the conductive layer inside the tube, which disposes of this charge. It has the additional advantages of increasing brightness by reflecting towards the viewer light emitted towards the back of the tube, and protecting the phosphor from ion bombardment</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><a name="Oscilloscope_tubes"></a><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Oscilloscope tubes<o:p></o:p></span></u></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">For use of an <span style="text-decoration: none;">oscilloscope</span>, the design is somewhat different. Rather than tracing out a raster, the electron beam is directly steered along an arbitrary path, while its intensity is kept constant. Usually the beam is deflected horizontally (X) by a varying potential difference between a pair of plates to its left and right, and vertically (Y) by plates above and below, although magnetic deflection is possible. The instantaneous position of the beam will depend upon the X and Y voltages. It is most useful for the horizontal voltage, repeatedly, to increase linearly with time until the beam reaches the edge of the screen, then jump back to its starting value (<span style="text-decoration: none;">saw tooth</span> waveform, generated by a <span style="text-decoration: none;">time base</span>). This causes the display to trace out the Y voltage as a function of time. Many oscilloscopes only function in this mode. However it can be useful to display, say, the voltage versus the current in an inductive component with an oscilloscope that allows X-Y input, without using the time base.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">The electron gun is always centered in the tube neck; the problem of ion production is either ignored or mitigated by using an aluminized screen.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">The beam can be moved much more rapidly, and it is easier to make the beam deflection accurately proportional to the applied signal, by using <span style="text-decoration: none;">electrostatic deflection</span> as described above instead of <span style="text-decoration: none;">magnetic deflection</span>. Magnetic deflection is achieved by passing currents through coils external to the tube; it allows the construction of much shorter tubes for a given screen size. Circuit arrangements are required to approximately <span style="text-decoration: none;">linearize</span> the beam position as a function of signal current and the very wide deflection angles require arrangements to keep the beam focused (dynamic focusing).<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">In principle either type of deflection can be used for any purpose; but electrostatic deflection is best for oscilloscopes with relatively small screens and high performance requirements, while a television receiver with a large screen and electrostatic deflection would be many meters deep.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Some issues must be resolved when using electrostatic deflection. Simple deflection plates appear as a fairly large <span style="text-decoration: none;">capacitive</span> load to the deflection amplifiers, requiring large <span style="text-decoration: none;">current</span> flows to charge and discharge this capacitance rapidly. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Another, more subtle, problem is that when the electrostatic charge switches, electrons which are already part of the way through the deflection plate region will only be partially deflected. This results in the trace on the screen lagging behind a rapid change in signal.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Extremely high performance oscilloscopes avoid these problems by subdividing the vertical (and sometimes horizontal) deflection plates into a series of plates along the length of the "deflection" region of the CRT, and electrically joined by a <span style="text-decoration: none;">delay line</span> terminated in its <span style="text-decoration: none;">characteristic impedance</span>; the timing of the delay line is set to match the velocity of the electrons through the deflection region. In this way, a change of charge "flows along" the deflection plate along with the electrons that it should affect, almost negating its effect on those electrons which are already partially through the region. Consequently the beam as seen on the screen slews almost instantly from the old point to the new point. In addition, because the entire deflection system operates as a <span style="text-decoration: none;">matched-impedance</span> <span style="text-decoration: none;">load</span>, the problem of driving a large capacitive load is mitigated.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">It is very common for oscilloscopes to have amplifiers which rapidly chop or swap the beam, blanking the display while switching. This allows the single beam to show as two or more traces, each representing a different input signal. These are properly called multiple-trace (dual trace, quadruple trace, etc.) oscilloscopes.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Much rarer is the true <span style="text-decoration: none;">dual beam oscilloscope</span>, whose tube contains an electron gun that produces two independent electron beams. Usually, but not always, both beams are deflected horizontally by a single shared pair of plates, while each beam has its own vertical deflection plates. This allows a time-domain display to show two signals simultaneously.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Many modern oscilloscope tubes pass the electron beam through an <span style="">expansion mesh</span>. This mesh acts like a lens for electrons and has the effect of roughly doubling the deflection of the electron beam, allowing the use of a larger faceplate for the same length of tube envelope. The expansion mesh also tends to increase the "spot size" on the screen, but this trade off is usually acceptable.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">When displaying one-shot fast events the electron beam must deflect very quickly, with few electrons impinging on the screen, leading to a faint or invisible display.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style=""> </span></span><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">A simple improvement can be attained by fitting a hood on the screen against which the observer presses his face, excluding extraneous light, but oscilloscope CRTs designed for very fast signals give a brighter display by passing the electron beam through a <span style="text-decoration: none;">micro-channel plate</span> just before it reaches the screen. Through the phenomenon of <span style="text-decoration: none;">secondary emission</span> this plate</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"> </span><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">multiplies the number of electrons reaching the phosphor screen, giving a brighter display, possibly with a slightly larger spot</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">The phosphors used in the screens of oscilloscope tubes are different from those used in the screens of other display tubes. Phosphors used for displaying moving pictures should produce an image which fades very rapidly to avoid smearing of new information by the remains of the previous picture; i.e., they should have short persistence. An oscilloscope will often display a trace which repeats unchanged, so longer persistence is not a problem; but it is a definite advantage when viewing a single-shot event, so longer-persistence phosphors are used.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">An oscilloscope trace can be any color without loss of information, so a phosphor with <span style="text-decoration: none;">maximum effective luminosity</span> is usually used. The eye is most sensitive to green: for visual and general-purpose use the <span style=""><span style="text-decoration: none;">P31</span></span> phosphor gives a visually bright trace, and also photographs well and is reasonably resistant to burning by the electron beam. For displays meant to be photographed rather than viewed, the blue trace of <span style=""><span style="text-decoration: none;">P11</span></span> phosphor gives higher photographic brightness; for extremely slow displays, very-long-persistence phosphors such as <span style=""><span style="text-decoration: none;">P7</span></span>, which produce a blue trace followed by a longer-lasting amber or yellow afterimage, are used.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">The phosphor screen of most oscilloscope tubes contains a permanently-marked internal <span style="text-decoration: none;">graticule</span>, dividing the screen using <span style="text-decoration: none;">Cartesian coordinates</span>. This internal graticule allows for the easy measurement of signals with no worries about <span style="text-decoration: none;">parallax error</span>.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style=""> </span><span style=""> </span>Less expensive oscilloscope tubes may instead have an external graticule of glass or <span style="text-decoration: none;">acrylic</span> plastic. Most graticule can be side-illuminated for use in a darkened room.<o:p>
<br /></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Oscilloscope tubes almost never contain integrated <span style="text-decoration: none;">implosion</span> protection (see below). External implosion protection must always be provided, either in the form of an external graticule or, for tubes with an internal graticule, a plain sheet of glass or plastic. The implosion protection shield</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"> is often colored to match the light emitted by the phosphor screen; this improves the contrast as seen by the user.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Graphical displays for early computers used vector monitors, a type of CRT similar to the oscilloscope but typically using magnetic, rather than electrostatic, deflection. Magnetic deflection allows the construction of much shorter tubes for a given <span style="text-decoration: none;">viewable image size</span>. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 0.5in; line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Here, the beam traces straight lines between arbitrary points, repeatedly refreshing the display as quickly as possible. Vector monitors were also used by some late-1970s to mid-1980s arcade games such as <span style=""><span style="text-decoration: none;">Asteroids</span></span>. Vector displays for computers did not noticeably suffer from the display artifacts of <span style="text-decoration: none;">Aliasing</span> and <span style="text-decoration: none;">pixilation</span>, but were limited in that they could display only a shape's outline (advanced vector systems could provide a limited amount of shading), and only a limited amount of crudely-drawn text (the number of shapes and/or textual characters drawn was severely limited, because the speed of refresh was roughly inversely proportional to how many vectors needed to be drawn). Some vector monitors are capable of displaying multiple colors, using either a typical tri-color CRT, or two phosphor layers (so-called "penetration color"). <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">In these dual-layer tubes, by controlling the strength of the electron beam, electrons could be made to reach (and illuminate) either or both phosphor layers, typically producing a choice of green, orange, or red.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Other graphical displays used '<span style="text-decoration: none;">storage tubes</span>', including <span style="text-decoration: none;">Direct View Bistable Storage Tubes</span> (DVBSTs). These CRTs inherently stored the image, and did not require periodic refreshing</span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Some displays for early computers (those that needed to display more text than was practical using vectors, or that required high speed for photographic output) used <span style="text-decoration: none;">Charactron</span> CRTs. These incorporate a perforated metal character mask (<span style="text-decoration: none;">stencil</span>), which shapes a wide electron beam to form a character on the screen. The system selects a character on the mask using one set of deflection circuits, and selects the position to draw the character at using a second set. The beam is activated briefly to draw the character at that position. Graphics could be drawn by selecting the position on the mask corresponding to the code for a space (in practice, they were simply not drawn), which had a small round hole in the center; this effectively disabled the character mask, and the system reverted to regular vector behavior.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Many of the early computer displays used "slow", or long-persistence, phosphors to reduce flicker for the operator. While it reduces eyestrain for relatively static displays, the drawback of long-persistence phosphor is that when the display is changed, it produces a visible afterimage that can take up to several seconds to fade. This makes it inappropriate for animation, or for real-time dynamic information displays.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Color tubes use three different phosphors which emit red, green, and blue light respectively. They are packed together in strips (as in <span style="text-decoration: none;">aperture grille</span> designs) or clusters called <span style="text-decoration: none;">"triads"</span> (as in <span style="text-decoration: none;">shadow mask</span> CRTs). Color CRTs have three electron guns, one for each primary color, arranged either in a straight line or in a triangular configuration (the guns are usually constructed as a single unit). Each gun's beam reaches the dots of exactly one color; a grille or mask absorbs those electrons that would otherwise hit the wrong phosphor. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Since each beam starts at a slightly different location within the tube, and all three beams are perturbed in essentially the same way, a particular deflection charge will cause the beams to hit a slightly different location on the screen (called a 'sub pixel'). Color CRTs with the guns arranged in a triangular configuration are known as delta-gun CRTs, </span><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">because the triangular formation resembles the shape of the Greek letter delta.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Dot pitch</span> defines the "native resolution" of the display. On delta-gun CRTs, as the scanned resolution approaches the dot pitch resolution, <span style="text-decoration: none;">moiré</span> (a kind of soft-edged banding) appears, due to interference patterns between the mask structure and the grid-like pattern of pixels drawn. Aperture grille monitors do not suffer from vertical moiré, however, because the phosphor strips </span><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">have no vertical detail.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><a name="The_glass_envelope"></a><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">The glass envelope<o:p></o:p></span></u></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">The outer glass allows the light generated by the phosphor out of the monitor, but (for color tubes) it must block dangerous <span style="text-decoration: none;">X-rays</span> generated by high energy electrons impacting the inside of the CRT face. For this reason, the glass is <span style="text-decoration: none;">leaded</span>. Color tubes require significantly higher anode voltages than monochrome tubes (as high as 32,000 volts in large tubes), partly to compensate for the blockage of some electrons by the aperture mask or grille; the amount of X-rays produced increases with voltage. Because of leaded glass, other shielding, and protective circuits designed to prevent the anode voltage from rising too high in case of malfunction, the X-ray emission of modern CRTs is well within approved safety limits.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">CRTs have a pronounced <span style="text-decoration: none;">triode</span> characteristic, which results in significant <span style="text-decoration: none;">gamma</span> (a nonlinear relationship between beam current and light intensity). In early televisions, screen gamma was an advantage because it acted to compress the screen <span style="text-decoration: none;">contrast</span>. However in systems where linear response is required (such as when <span style="text-decoration: none;">desktop publishing</span>), gamma correction is applied. The gamma characteristic exists today in all <span style="text-decoration: none;">digital video</span> systems.<o:p>
<br /></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">CRT displays accumulate a <span style="text-decoration: none;">static</span> electrical charge on the screen, unless preventive measures are taken. This charge does not pose a safety hazard, but can lead to significant degradation of image quality through attraction of <span style="text-decoration: none;">dust</span> particles to the surface of the screen. Unless the display is regularly cleaned with a dry cloth or special cleaning tissue (using ordinary household cleaners may damage anti-glare protective layer on the screen), after a few months the brightness and clarity of the image drops significantly.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">The high voltage (EHT) used for accelerating the electrons is provided by a transformer. For CRTs used in televisions, this is usually a <span style="text-decoration: none;">fly back transformer</span> that steps up the line (horizontal) deflection supply to as much as 32,000 volts for a color tube, although monochrome tubes and specialty CRTs may operate at much lower voltages. The output of the transformer is rectified and the pulsating output voltage is smoothed by a capacitor formed by the tube itself (the accelerating anode being one plate, the glass being the dielectric, and the grounded (earthed) <span style="text-decoration: none;">Aquadag</span> coating on the outside of the tube being the other plate). Before all-glass tubes, the structure between the screen and the electron gun was made from a heavy metal cone which served as the accelerating anode. Smoothing of the EHT was then done with a high voltage capacitor, external to the tube itself. In the earliest televisions, before the invention of the fly back transformer design, a linear high-voltage supply was used; because these supplies were capable of delivering much more current at their high voltage than fly back high voltage systems – in the case of an accident they proved extremely dangerous. The fly back circuit design addressed this: in the case of a fault, the fly back system delivers relatively little current, improving a person's chance of surviving a direct shock from the high voltage anode.</span>
<br /></span></p> Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-9073881954988209512009-02-16T00:45:00.000-08:002009-02-16T00:49:23.668-08:00DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES<div style="text-align: justify;"> <meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"> <meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"> <meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 12"> <meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 12"> <link style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CPLANET%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"> <link style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" rel="themeData" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CPLANET%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx"> <link style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" rel="colorSchemeMapping" 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mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:11.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif"; mso-ascii-font-family:Calibri; mso-ascii-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-fareast; mso-hansi-font-family:Calibri; mso-hansi-theme-font:minor-latin; mso-bidi-font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-theme-font:minor-bidi;} </style> <![endif]--><span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;" class="mw-headline"><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;" lang="EN">DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES</span></u></span></span>
<br /><span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;" class="mw-headline"><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 115%;" lang="EN"></span></u></span></span>
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style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Liquid crystal display (LCD).<o:p></o:p></span></u></span></p> <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style=""> </span>TFT LCDs are the most popular display device for new computers. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div> <ul style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" type="disc"><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: 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These were used in most laptops until the mid 1990s. <o:p></o:p></span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Thin Film Transistor</span> LCDs give much better picture quality in several respects. Nearly all modern LCD monitors are TFT. <o:p></o:p></span></span></li></ul></ul> <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Cathode ray tube (CRT)<o:p></o:p></span></u></span></p> <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div> <ul style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" type="disc"><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Raster scans computer monitors, which produce images using pixels. These were the most popular display device for older computers. <o:p></o:p></span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Vector</span> displays, as used on the <span style="text-decoration: none;">Vectrex</span>, many scientific and <span style="text-decoration: none;">radar</span> applications, and several early <span style="text-decoration: none;">arcade machines</span> (notably <span style="text-decoration: none;">Asteroids</span>) - always implemented using CRT displays due to requirement for a <span style="text-decoration: none;">deflection</span> system, though can be emulated on any <span style="text-decoration: none;">raster</span>-based display. <o:p></o:p></span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Television</span> sets were used by most early personal and home computers, connecting <span style="text-decoration: none;">composite video</span> to the television set using a <span style="text-decoration: none;">modulator</span>. Resolution and image quality were strongly limited by the display capabilities of television.
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{mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:2.0in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Wingdings;} @list l1:level5 {mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:2.5in; mso-level-number-position:left; text-indent:-.25in; mso-ansi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:Wingdings;} ol {margin-bottom:0in;} ul {margin-bottom:0in;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif";} </style> <![endif]--> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial; font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">Plasma display <o:p></o:p></span></u></span></p> <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div> <ul style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" type="disc"><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Video projectors</span> use <span style="text-decoration: none;">CRT</span>, <span style="text-decoration: none;">LCD</span>, <span style="text-decoration: none;">DLP</span>, <span style="text-decoration: none;">LCoS</span> or many other technologies to send light through the air to a <span style="text-decoration: none;">projection screen</span>. Front projectors use screens as reflectors to send light back, while <span style="text-decoration: none;">rear projectors</span> use screens as diffusers to refract light forward. Rear projectors are often integrated into the same case as their screen. <o:p></o:p></span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Surface-conduction electron-emitter display</span> (SED) <o:p></o:p></span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Organic light-emitting diode</span> (OLED) display <o:p></o:p></span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="background: rgb(248, 252, 255) none repeat scroll 0% 0%; line-height: 150%; -moz-background-clip: -moz-initial; -moz-background-origin: -moz-initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: -moz-initial;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Penetron</span> <span style=""> </span>military aircraft displays <o:p></o:p></span></span></li></ul></ul> <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div> <h3 style="line-height: 150%; font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span class="mw-headline"><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN">OTHER DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES</span></u></span><u><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><o:p></o:p></span></u></span></h3> <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; line-height: 150%; font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Comparison of display technology</span> <o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <div style="text-align: justify;"> </div> <ul style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" type="disc"><ul type="circle"><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Cathode ray tube</span> (CRT) <o:p></o:p></span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Digital Light Processing</span> (DLP) <o:p></o:p></span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Field emission display</span> (FED) <o:p></o:p></span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Laser TV</span> <o:p></o:p></span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Light-emitting diode</span> (LED) <o:p></o:p></span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Liquid crystal on silicon</span> (LCOS) <o:p></o:p></span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Organic light-emitting diode</span> (OLED) <o:p></o:p></span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Plasma display panel</span> (PDP) <o:p></o:p></span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Surface-conduction electron-emitter display</span> (SED) <o:p></o:p></span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="font-size: 13pt; line-height: 150%;" lang="EN"><span style="text-decoration: none;">Vacuum fluorescent display</span> (VFD)</span></span>
<br /> </li></ul></ul> Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-40328420586685546122009-01-14T23:09:00.000-08:002009-01-14T23:18:20.509-08:00FILTERS<div style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">FILTERS</span><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 385px; height: 141px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiHNkiABDoc1v-cfRaUH3whWNuThhxrvuLHhBzS3I15JjIdbSNoj6769BDQy5Nbs8mVFBweUgI1UY-28D-G1-eRKGvVKVu9022R3ne4gDC1xVQE_98dA_tqWRhMZPdLDymq4XL1C9Ao3KE/s320/Filter.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5291416154956128898" border="0" />We know that the output of the rectifier is pulsating d.c. ie the output obtained by the rectifier is not pure d.c. but it contains some ac components along with the dc o/p. These ac components are called as Ripples, which are undesirable or unwanted. To minimize the ripples in the rectifier output filter circuits are used. These circuits are normally connected between the rectifier and load as shown below.</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >Filter is a circuit which converts pulsating dc output from a rectifier to a steady dc output. In otherwords, filters are used to reduce the amplitudes of the unwanted ac components in the rectifier.</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">Note</span>: A capacitor passes ac signal readily but blocks dc.</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">Types of Filters</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >1. Capacitor Filter (C-Filter)</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >2. Inductor Filter</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >3. Choke Input Filter (LC-filter)</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >4. Capacitor Input Filter (Π-filter)</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">Capacitor Filter( C-filter)</span><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 343px; height: 206px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqjmTA_90YMRpJ3yqFNrDgLd5LRIdGDVaLpo_g63p0MQUKKPlMTK8haFswSmZ6_UPRFSyskuNHDJLFLfr0OfdUuTCD45a1sX9qmYoHY5eUOo5R4mZnviqaPVLkXO35N-66D5vpjoW-fvk/s320/Capacitor+Filter%28C+filter%29.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5291416040493750930" border="0" /></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >• When the Input signal rises from o to a the diode is forward biased therefore it starts conducting since the capacitor acts as a short circuit for ac signal it gets charged up to the peak of the input signal and the dc component flows through the load RL.</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >• When the input signal fall from a to b the diode gets reverse biased . This is mainly because of the voltage across the capacitor obtained during the period o to a is more when comapared to Vi. Therefore there is no conduction of current through the diode.</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >• Now the charged capacitor acts as a battery and it starts discharging through the load RL. Mean while the input signal passes through b,c,d section. When the signal reaches the point d the diode is still reverse biased since the capacitor voltage is more than the input voltage.</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >• When the signal reaches point e, the input voltage can be expected to be more than the capacitor voltage. When the input signal moves from e to f the capacitor gets charged to its peak value again. The diode gets reverse biased and the capacitor starts discharging. The final output across RL is shown in Fig.</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">Advantages of C-Filter</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >• low cost, small size and good characteristics.</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >• It is preferred for small load currents ( upto 50 mA)</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >• It is commonly used in transistor radio, batteries eliminator etc.</span><br /><br /><br /></div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-13720737711680834882009-01-13T22:39:00.000-08:002009-01-13T22:48:50.733-08:00RECTIFIERS<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >RECTIFIERS</span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >“Rectifiers are the circuit which converts ac to dc”</span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Rectifiers are grouped into tow categories depending on the period of conductions.</span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">1. Half-wave rectifier</span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">2. Full- wave rectifier.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" > Half-wave rectifier</span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The circuit diagram of a half-wave rectifier is shown in fig below along with the I/P and O/P waveforms.</span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 310px; height: 350px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4JVqNQwPt34OErWx4lyF9SJLHJlfhFJFeU9NJJYHYL3cViCTTB9ybqPgZs7tS731929y7deDBx_JHQos6fZFEL_HBwpz0F-yMW3lQVOHnRDn4yUBjDptWxaQo7qS48zCvI9Pe0hXTosI/s320/half-wave+rectifier.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5291037360688952354" border="0" /></span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Half wave rectifier (i) Circuit diagram (ii) waveforms</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The transformer is employed in order to step-down the supply voltage and also to prevent from shocks.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The diode is used to rectify the a.c. signal while , the pulsating d.c. is taken across the load resistor RL.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• During the +ve half cycle, the end X of the secondary is +ve and end Y is -ve . Thus , forward biasing the diode. As the diode is forward biased, the current flows through the load RL and a voltage is developed across it.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• During the –ve half-cycle the end Y is +ve and end X is –ve thus, reverse biasing the diode. As the diode is reverse biased there is no flow of current through RL thereby the output voltage is zero.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >Full-wave rectifier</span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Full-wave rectifier are of two types</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">1. Centre tapped full-wave rectifier</span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">2. Bridge rectifier</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Centre tapped full –wave rectifier</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >Centre tapped Full wave rectifier</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> (i) Circuit diagram (ii) waveforms</span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 312px; height: 356px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLQHtd3-p2xRMQ0JPzFFzIOfE7-Woa6frhAp9mkPxy3ten4Llgy_EIuhgjEl69x_-ZS8I0DCmgkPhFbcRXIm8dEasGVkZI-sweF7HaJx4k0907-_51Bgv1A72usR9US3bvzJMOp2IbKKg/s320/Centre+tapped+Full+wave+rectifier.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5291037267892600658" border="0" /></span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The circuit diagram of a center tapped full wave rectifier is shown in fig. 2.6 above. It employs two diodes and a center tap transformer. The a.c. signal to be rectified is applied to the primary of the transformer and the d.c. output is taken across the load RL.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• During the +ve half-cycle end X is +ve and end Y is –ve this makes diode D1 forward biased and thus a current i1 flows through it and load resistor RL.Diode D2 is reverse biased and the current i2 is zero.</span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• During the –ve half-cycle end Y is +Ve and end X is –Ve. Now diode D2 is forward biased and thus a current i2 flows through it and load resistor RL. Diode D1 is reversed and the current i1 = 0.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >Disadvantages</span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Since, each diode uses only one-half of the transformer secondary voltage the d.c. output is comparatively small.</span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• It is difficult to locate the center-tap on secondary winding of the transformer.</span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The diodes used must have high Peak-inverse voltage.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >Bridge rectifier</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 374px; height: 300px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmnrCueQDB8HoTlLSiH6HRFm5_LGeAa2wkQaRD3O3ltftxEklUNrVfnXMoiyz53BTkQ3g_hmz0tvwUeVHZ1Ei76NeLaa_FksO5837VeFIyB8UDhONDE2UY8u7XXfWV8l7VitwqUFugGhc/s320/Full+wave+bridge+wave+rectifier.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5291037092321127874" border="0" /></span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Full wave bridge wave rectifier (i) Circuit diagram (ii) waveforms.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The circuit diagram of a bridge rectifer is shown above. It uses four diodes and a transformer.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• During the +ve half-cycle, end A is +ve and end B is –ve thus diodes D1 and D3 are forward bias while diodes D2 and D4 are reverse biased thus a current flows through diode D1, load RL ( C to D) and diode D3.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• During the –ve half-cycle, end B is +ve and end A is –ve thus diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased while the diodes D1 and D3 are reverse biased. Now the flow of current is through diode D4 load RL ( D to C) and diode D2. Thus, the waveform is same as in the case of center-tapped full wave rectifier.</span></span><br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >Advantages</span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The need for center-taped transformer is eliminated.</span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The output is twice when compared to center-tapped full wave rectifier.</span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> for the same secondary voltage.</span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The peak inverse voltage is one-half(1/2) compared to center-tapped full wave rectifier.</span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Can be used where large amount of power is required.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >Disadvantages</span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• It requires four diodes.</span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The use of two extra diodes cause an additional voltage drop thereby reducing the output voltage.</span></span><br /> <br /> </div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-7451978740790104722009-01-13T22:36:00.000-08:002009-01-13T22:37:49.770-08:00Basic Definitions<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;">Basic Definitions</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;">1.Knee voltage or Cut-in Voltage.</span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">It is the forward voltage at which the diode starts conducting.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;">2. Breakdown voltage</span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">It is the reverse voltage at which the diode (p-n junction) breaks down with sudden rise in reverse current.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;">3. Peak-inverse voltage (PIV)</span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">It is the max. reverse voltage that can be applied to a p-n junction without causing damage to the junction.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">If the reverse voltage across the junction exceeds its peak-inverse voltage, then the junction exceeds its Peak-inverse voltage, then the junction gets destroyed because of excessive heat. In rectification, one thing to be kept in mind is that care should be taken that reverse voltage across the diode during –ve half cycle of a.c. doesnot exceed the peak-inverse voltage of the diode.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;">4. Maximum Forward current</span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">It is the Max. instantaneous forward current that a p-n junction can conduct without damaging the junction. If the forward current is more than the specified rating then the junction gets destroyed due to over heating.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;">5.Maximum Power rating</span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">It is the maximum power that can be dissipated at the junction without damaging it. The power dissipated across the junction is equal to the product of junction current and the voltage across the junction.</span></span><br /><br /></div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-60780878563955992362009-01-13T22:31:00.000-08:002009-01-13T22:36:49.929-08:00Volt- Ampere characteristics(V-I)<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >Volt- Ampere characteristics(V-I)</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 266px; height: 320px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhCFZ32j008WwouI1Ou6ihhtgSTpPjG9c_ns2oTbcznKL69vwu8TGthY-3z0_Xgl1dJ5dMM62i__9QWPQoSywdui0ezXaG9y05nV2YmzSFXOaMXwSKL0sYX7MVaZ82juVAhEhybmslB7UY/s320/V-I+characteristics+of+p-n+junction+diode.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5291034323191310626" border="0" /></span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode.</span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">(i) Circuit diagram</span></span><br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">(ii) Characteristics</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The V-I characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be obtained with the help of the circuit shown in fig.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The supply voltage V is a regulated power supply, the diode is forward biased in the circuit shown. The resistor R is a current limiting resistor. The voltage across the diode is measured with the help of voltmeter and the current is recorded using an ammeter.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• By varying the supply voltage different sets of voltage and currents are obtained. By plotting these values on a graph, the forward characteristics can be obtained. It can be noted from the graph the current remains zero till the diode voltage attains the barrier potential.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• For silicon diode, the barrier potential is 0.7 V and for Germanium diode, it is 0.3 V. The barrier potential is also called as knee voltage or cur-in voltage.</span></span><br /> <br /> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The reverse characteristics can be obtained by reverse biasing the diode. It can be noted that at a particular reverse voltage, the reverse current increases rapidly. This voltage is called breakdown voltage.</span></span><br /> <br /> <br /> </div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-53064419157966558292009-01-13T05:12:00.000-08:002009-01-13T05:18:28.597-08:00SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;">SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">When a p-type semiconductor material is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor the contact surface is called a p-n junction. The p-n junction is also called as semiconductor diode.</span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 423px; height: 143px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1yTBHeef-1ZtGyNxdoGiFXrOpI6Awayie1Qzaq6VfG5Ahz6lmZbz6aRAI4G6cE6upiqooOMEajqSzjPmbV0vdNsxdYeL665-MpnMkBNUw8UgC8qtuC5lYSDqRthEDVpgT8mdtrs4pOjEd/s320/p-n+junction+semiconductor+diode.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290766501602113922" border="0" /></span><span style="font-family: arial;">• The left side material is a p-type semiconductor having –ve acceptor ions and +vely charged holes. The right side material is n-type semiconductor having +ve donor ions and free electrons.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Suppose the two pieces are suitably treated to form pn junction, then there is a tendency for the free electrons from n-type to diffuse over to the p-side and holes from p-type to the n-side . This process is called diffusion.</span></span><br /><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• As the free electrons move across the junction from n-type to p-type, +ve donor ions are uncovered. Hence a +ve charge is built on the n-side of the junction. At the same time, the free electrons cross the junction and uncover the –ve acceptor ions by filling in the holes. Therefore a net –ve charge is established on p-side of the junction.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• When a sufficient number of donor and acceptor ions is uncovered further diffusion is prevented.</span></span><br /><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Thus a barrier is set up against further movement of charge carriers. This is called potential barrier or junction barrier Vo. The potential barrier is of the order of 0.1 to 0.3V.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;">Note:</span><span style="font-family: arial;"> outside this barrier on each side of the junction, the material is still neutral. Only inside the barrier, there is a +ve charge on n-side and –ve charge on p-side. This region is called depletion layer.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;">2.1 Biasing</span><span style="font-family: arial;">: Connecting a p-n junction to an external d.c. voltage source is called</span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> biasing.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">1. Forward biasing</span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">2. Reverse biasing</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;">1. Forward biasing</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• When external voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction that it cancels the potential barrier, thus permitting current flow is called forward biasing.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• To apply forward bias, connect +ve terminal of the battery to p-type and –ve terminal to n-type as shown in fig.2.1 below.</span></span><br /><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The applied forward potential establishes the electric field which acts against the field due to potential barrier. Therefore the resultant field is weakened and the barier height is reduced at the junction as shown in fig. 2.1.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Since the potential barrier voltage is very small, a small forward voltage is sufficient to completely eliminate the barrier. Once the potential barrier is eliminated by the forward voltage, junction resistance becomes almost zero and a low resistance path is established for the entire circuit. Therefore current flows in the circuit. This is called forward current.</span><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 349px; height: 257px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiPWTT74qqXETUmw1yvr-KgNngPf9OYaw90YiI-ReRjaW4Yh0tok9E51epYENr1i8Lz6jgg6438yoxwDAuoI92xw2lkqv2gmLkLvTFRpdjstfmN7TSTUuVtHZzmq1hs08KxctfOxsI9fOKX/s320/forward+biasing+of+p-n+junction.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290766410920745666" border="0" /></span><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;">2. Reverse biasing</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• When the external voltage applied to the junction is in such a direction the potential barrier is increased it is called reverse biasing.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• To apply reverse bias, connect –ve terminal of the battery to p-type and +ve terminal to n-type as shown in figure below.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The applied reverse voltage establishes an electric field which acts in the same direction as the field due to potential barrier. Therefore the resultant field at the junction is strengthened and the barrier height is increased as shown in fig.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The increased potential barrier prevents the flow of charge carriers across the junction. Thus a high resistance path is established for the entire circuit and hence current does not flow.</span><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 355px; height: 299px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihyL5jqz-2RUveRWn-BIwbtHqtG6EE0iA_QZrIAWJnrO89gdF-G7j1gT5Q4PG8-2DZeUwY9LuNxG8G3beRpRSY78n_UPnSn-Oqn3PHxFyIp4GdgAgfbjIVL2PZVCGerqTHLU06HaATsPvQ/s320/Reverse+biasing+of+p-n+junction.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290766314587139650" border="0" /></span></span><br /><br /></div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-83990884738682809112009-01-12T22:13:00.000-08:002009-01-12T22:17:28.061-08:00HALL EFFECT<span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >HALL EFFECT </span><br /><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">If a piece of metal or semiconductor carrying a current I is placed in a transverse magnetic field B then an electric field E is induced in the direction perpendicular to both I and B. This phenomenon is known as Hall effect.</span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 360px; height: 148px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjjOXaV6F7RWiNTUj9tcNGkd1pt1fpKT-oNRe3lpXoo124Y82Qhtyrvw8O_y-5UoebsjND7-LQHKAmksa48hc1qjAc4BXStsowMcrGfKzH_4eq2zBYPV2pCL4vOGbZP7hQlEaqbCV5ZzPlA/s320/HALL+EFFECT.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290658072304860594" border="0" /></span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Hall effect is normally used to determine whether a semi-conductor is n-type or p-type.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >To find whether the semiconductor is n-type or p-type</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">i) In the figure. above, If I is in the +ve X direction and B is in the +ve Z direction, then a force will be exerted on the charge carriers (holes and electrons) in the –ve Y direction.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">ii) This force is independent of whether the charge carriers are electrons or holes. Due to this force the charge carriers ( holes and electrons) will be forced downward towards surface –1 as shown.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">iii) If the semiconductor is N-type, then electrons will be the charge carriers and these electrons will accumulate on surface –1 making that surface –vely charged with respect to surface –2. Hence a potential called Hall voltage appears between the surfaces 1 and 2.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">iv) Similarly when surface –1 is positively charged with respect to surface –2, then the semiconductor is of P-type. In this way, by seeing the polarity of Hall voltage we can determine whether the semiconductor is of P-type or N-type.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >Applications of Hall effect</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Hall effect is used to determine,</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• carrier concentration, conductivity and mobility.</span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The sign of the current carrying charge.</span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Charge density.</span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• It is used as magnetic field meter.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >Carrier lifetime (τ)</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">In a pure semiconductor, we know that number of holes are equal to the number of electrons. Thermal agitation however, continues to produce new hole electron pairs while other hole-electron pair disappear as a result of recombination.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">On an average, a hole will exist for τp second and an electron will exist for τn second before recombination. This time is called the carrier lifetime or Mean lifetime.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The average time an electron or hole can exist in the free state is called carrier lifetime.</span></span><br /><br /></div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-49207820785789970632009-01-12T22:07:00.000-08:002009-01-12T22:13:51.802-08:00Fermi-level<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >Fermi-level</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family:arial;">Fermi level indicates the level of energy in the forbidden gap.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >1. Fermi-level for an Intrinsic semiconduct</span><span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >or</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family:arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 346px; height: 248px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiNlt8XkSm6sZAaz7X4WQwU39qWd9rEZXHjxqOGxZYQpcjDg4Db17Uz6-TncYcmcxZ7obeqVxM9vmVtUO7YEo3Xf_CGaau8Ui1WR6gM8DTsOh8xOuLHgKpm47oK-iPN4ywQO_vjBACG-U/s320/Energy+level+Diagram.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290656833140554514" border="0" /></span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family:arial;">• We know that the Intrinsic semiconductor acts as an insulator at absolute zero temperature because there are free electrons and holes available but as the temperature increases electron hole pairs are generated and hence number of electrons will be equal to number of holes.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family:arial;">• Therefore, the possibility of obtaining an electron in the conduction band will be equal to the probability of obtaining a hole in the valence band.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family:arial;">• If Ec is the lowest energy level of Conduction band and Ev is the highest energy level of the valence band then the fermi level Ef is exactly at the center of these two levels as shown above.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >2. Fermi-level in a semiconductors having impurities (Extrinsic)</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >a) Fermi-level for n-type Semiconductor</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family:arial;">• Let a donar impurity be added to an Intrinsic semiconductor then the donar energy level (ED) shown by the dotted lines is very close to conduction band energy level (Ec).</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family:arial;">• Therefore the unbonded valence electrons of the impurity atoms can very easily jump into the conduction band and become free electros thus, at room temperature almost all the extra electrons of pentavalent impurity will jump to the conduction band.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family:arial;">• The donar energy level (ED) is just below conduction band level (Ec) as shown in figure. Due to a large number of free electrons, the probability of electrons occupying the energy level towards the conduction band will be more hence, fermi level shifts towards the conduction band.</span><span style="font-family:arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 338px; height: 330px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhpcDAJa8oIMNeJleyxgQUgleOuhp6j4TGRHdvpnRHaCjoPczo5B9tTKcuaR-AJnSOS5OKbT8piGVA4wF_CiB599gdd0JBt_47e807HxAgKAzb4Km_qrbxtTQMkpxcrmPsYGCRTxbvVPtE/s320/Energy+level+diagram+for+n-type+semiconductor.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290656733458911826" border="0" /></span></span><span style="font-weight: bold; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >b) Fermi-level for P-type semiconductor</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family:arial;">• Let an acceptor impurity be added to an Intrinsic semiconductor then the acceptor energy level (Ea) shown by dotted lines is very close to the valence band shown by dotted lines is very close to the valence band energy level (Ev).</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family:arial;">• Therefore the valence band electrons of the impurity atom can very easily jump into the valence band thereby creating holes in the valence band.</span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family:arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 355px; height: 280px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg4iLReyZnpdJLR5UoK2VTKXueDSpE-ATkpfQYcbYY33waShxeE5CK0f_7wkGyfQKxMPGIMLMiFJa6aQ5QJpGgvPArRyKEMxCiB5rMWi0kmo9SvxbmngIQzXIpstJGuDUyMXoyoqaEgwWw/s320/Energy+level+diagram+for+P-type+semiconductor.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290656629245747202" border="0" /></span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family:arial;">• The acceptor energy level (EA) is just above the valence band level as shown in figure.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family:arial;">• Due to large number of holes the probability of holes occupying the energy level towards the valence band will be more and hence, the fermi level gets shifted towards the valence band.</span></span><br /><br /><br /></div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-62391718606103508822009-01-12T22:02:00.000-08:002009-01-12T22:07:34.105-08:00Drift and Diffusion current<span style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-weight: bold;font-size:100%;" >Drift and Diffusion current</span><br /><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">The flow of current through a semiconductor material is normally referred to as one of the two types.</span></span><br /><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-weight: bold;font-size:100%;" >Drift current</span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• If an electron is subjected to an electric field in free space it will accelerate in a straight line form the –ve terminal to the + ve terminal of the applied voltage.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• However in the case of conductor or semiconductor at room temperature, a free electrons under the influence of electric field will move towards the +ve terminal of the applied voltage but will continuously collide with atoms all the ways as shown in figure</span><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 361px; height: 144px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj-tXc7XhaBTk-hULEmHxgEGn2CR84fgQGUzJtL29hUDatsttWPcWyeSKNXEH2W6tck63tIxnELOHFh8zgTAzPXAAy0Y8yf7-4LZY_JsdIEMEsSVygSFKZ5XCvPRYoGnLqGG8jlI51WsdY6/s320/Drift+current.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290655608211021266" border="0" /></span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Each time, when the electron strikes an atom, it rebounds in a random direction but the presence of electric field doesnot stop the collisions and random motion. As a result the electrons drift in a direction of the applied electric field.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The current produced in this way is called as Drift current and it is the usual kind of current flow that occurs in a conductor.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-weight: bold;font-size:100%;" >Diffusion current</span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The directional movement of charge carriers due to their concentration gradient produces a component of current known as Diffusion current.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The mechanism of transport of charges in a semiconductor when no electric field is applied called diffusion. It is encountered only in semiconductors and is normally absent in conductors.</span><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 363px; height: 229px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSC6StUseQLJ5bl8FN-pTaXC54srvaWkObxBY5c9-HYGX_dU2oIYJxiLlKFXjoquego09oaYHwKTAaLlBgm5HZr6wrUMOFzypOXNFNftvHqPUfczvaV-QD0CY2meJ0J5Z32314nQApe57v/s320/Diffusion+of+Current.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290655249327976914" border="0" /></span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• With no applied voltage if the number of charge carriers (either holes or electrons) in one region of a semiconductor is less compared to the rest of the region then there exist a concentration gradient.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Since the charge carriers are either all electrons or all holes they sine polarity of charge and thus there is a force of repulsion between them.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• As a result, the carriers tend to move gradually or diffuse from the region of higher concentration to the region of lower concentration. This process is called diffusion and electric current produced due to this process is called diffusion current.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• This process continues until all the carriers are evenly distributed through the material. Hence when there is no applied voltage, the net diffusion current will be zero.</span></span><br /><br /><br /></div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-10515220379312938912009-01-12T21:58:00.000-08:002009-01-12T22:02:24.976-08:00p-type semiconductor<span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><br /></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >p-type semiconductor</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 378px; height: 319px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhasD4bomW02EGEonwgq-nd954Neuxx5NA3VR9fsPcVPnI9Wal5tDft8SQWvNlstqx11hdKdNFLreRpOZ7YTmem-hUgh_x1JRiv91cwRQVt4E5pDVuaTGULOikgGvHFY5GX7SVKw2IgyZ0e/s320/p-type+semiconductor.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290653968068157458" border="0" /></span><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 354px; height: 251px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhNTiLkIND80WDS6lEWr6idH3xKW9a6d5p-3VIB69j_9Q3FGoLcUOHHtAYbsxdPe7bTvSrxP_IWB4IdGp0cj-bLnaI0t1Hlfx_lnxbES5z2tnwcTr2REq_5px1yQ4DpFrQG_IMyQT7TvlIm/s320/Energy+band+diagram+for+p-type+semiconductor.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290654064263291730" border="0" /></span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor it is called p-type semiconductor.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The addition of trivalent impurity provides large number of holes in the semiconductor crystals.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >• Example:</span><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;"> Gallium, Indium or Boron etc. Such impurities which produce p-type semiconductors are known as acceptor impurities because the holes created can accept the electrons in the semi conductor crystal.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">To understand the formation of p-type semiconductor, consider a pure silicon crystal with an impurity say gallium added to it as shown in figure 1.7.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• We know that silicon atom has 4 valence electrons and Gallium has 3 electrons. When Gallium is added as impurity to silicon, the 3 valence electrons of gallium make 3 covalent bonds with 3 valence electrons of silicon.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The 4th valence electrons of silicon cannot make a covalent bond with that of Gallium because of short of one electron as shown above. This absence of electron is called a hole. Therefore for each gallium atom added one hole is created, a small amount of Gallium provides millions of holes.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">Due to thermal energy, still hole-electron pairs are generated but the number of holes are very large compared to the number of electrons. Therefore, in a p-type semiconductor holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. Since the current conduction is predominantly by hole( + charges) it is called as p-type semiconductor( p means +ve)</span></span><br /><br /></div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-53671732094980371312009-01-12T21:53:00.000-08:002009-01-12T21:58:25.199-08:00N-Type semiconductor<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;">N-Type semiconductor</span><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 346px; height: 308px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgXs3qRTxq-Hf1Q1T27BJe6dmxwByDAo1ogA6N3B5M6C_zMsO0huy30rHcOSOMbg-phkoO5kJKK4x-L8BZHXk8J0E_3a_g6IMF4A-lpA51iu8SpoaQXIcst1jIQiGXIjxGZ3D8gWbWUOeYL/s320/n-type+Semiconductor.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290652782207570610" border="0" /></span><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 349px; height: 218px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZT_shn-7BjnThRn-OAdz04tkd8h8Qx4nuTdXAnxH6VLN-k8HkeKyc8ZCUeI6diAZj2KVp0_44b8hI7OH72vrsqdzmz0r0XCXp12b3lHJnXBYEWN-_cthPEvOvQ9Q4-IGRKjGELe46-egG/s320/Energy+band+diagram+for+n-type+semiconductor.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290652890144191570" border="0" /></span></span>
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mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";} </style> <![endif]--> </div><ul style="margin-top: 0in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;"><b>When a small current of Pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor it is called as n-type semiconductor.<o:p></o:p></b></span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="margin-top: 0in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">Addition of Pentavalent impurity provides a large number of free electrons in a semiconductor crystal. </span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="margin-top: 0in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">Typical example for pentavalent impurities are Arsenic, Antimony and Phosphorus etc. Such impurities which produce n-type semiconductors are known as Donor impurities because they donate or provide free electrons to the semiconductor crystal.</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> <span style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:";font-size:100%;" >To understand the formation of n-type semiconductor, consider a pure silicon crystal with an impurity say arsenic added to it as shown in figure</span>
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mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";} </style> <![endif]--> </div><ul style="margin-top: 0in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">We know that a silicon atom has 4 valence electrons and Arsenic has 5 valence electrons. When Arsenic is added as impurity to silicon, the 4 valence electrons of silicon make co-valent bond</span><span style=";font-size:100%;" > </span><span style="font-size:100%;">with 4 valence electrons of Arsenic. </span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="margin-top: 0in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">The 5<sup>th</sup> Valence electrons finds no place in the covalent bond thus, it becomes free and travels to the conduction band as shown in figure. Therefore, for each arsenic atom added, one free electron will be available in the silicon crystal. Though each arsenic atom provides one free electrons yet an extremely small amount of arsenic impurity provides enough atoms to supply millions of free electrons.</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /><span style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:";font-size:100%;" >Due to thermal energy, still hole election pairs are generated but the number of free electrons are very large in number when compared to holes. So in an n-type semiconductor<span style=""> </span>electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are minority charge carriers . Since the current conduction is pre-dominantly by free electrons( -vely charges) it is called as n-type<span style=""> </span>semiconductor( n- means –ve)</span><span style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" >.</span>
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<br /></div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-27668677611815264542009-01-12T21:47:00.001-08:002009-01-12T21:53:32.323-08:00Classification of semiconductors<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;">Classification of semiconductors</span></span>
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font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";} </style> <![endif]--> </div><p style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">Semiconductors are classified into two types.</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=";font-size:100%;" >a)<span style=""> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:100%;">Intrinsic semiconductors.</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=";font-size:100%;" >b)<span style=""> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:100%;">Extrinsic semiconductors.</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><h2 style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="text-decoration: none;font-size:100%;" >a) Intrinsic semiconductors</span></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=";font-size:100%;" ><span style="">·<span style=""> </span></span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:100%;"><b><i>A semiconductor in an extremely </i></b><b><i>pure form is known as Intrinsic semiconductor</i></b><i>.<o:p></o:p></i></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i><o:p> </o:p></i></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-size:100%;" > </span><span style="font-size:100%;">Example: Silicon, germanium.</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=";font-size:100%;" >·<span style=""> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:100%;">Both silicon and Germanium are tetravalent (having 4 valence electrons).</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.5in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=";font-size:100%;" >·<span style=""> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:100%;">Each atom forms a covalent bond or e</span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.75in; text-indent: -0.25in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;">lectron pair bond with the electrons of neighboring atom. 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mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";} </style> <![endif]--> </div><h3 style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;">At low temperature </span></h3><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="margin-top: 0in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">At low temperature, all the valence electrons are tightly bounded the nucleus hence no free electrons are available for conduction.</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 0.25in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span 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mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";} </style> <![endif]--><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:";font-size:100%;" >At room temp</span><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:";font-size:100%;" >erature</span>
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</span><span style="font-size:100%;">When an electron escapes from a covalent bond and becomes free electrons a vacancy is created in a covalent bond as shown in figure above. Such a vacancy is called Hole. It carries positive charge and moves under the influence of an electric field in the direction of the electric</span><span style=";font-size:100%;" > </span><span style="font-size:100%;">field applied. </span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="margin-top: 0in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">Numbers of holes are equal to the number of electrons since, a hole is nothing but an absence of electrons.</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;">
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mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";} </style> <![endif]--> </div><h2 style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="text-decoration: none;font-size:100%;" >Extrinsic Semiconductor<o:p></o:p></span></h2><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoBodyText" style="margin-left: 0.5in; text-indent: -0.25in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style=";font-size:100%;" >·<span style=""> </span></span><!--[endif]--><span style="font-size:100%;">When an impurity is added to an Intrinsic semiconductor its conductivity changes. </span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style=";font-size:100%;" > </span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="margin-top: 0in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">This process of adding impurity to a semiconductor is called Doping and the impure semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor. </span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><p class="MsoNormal" style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p><div style="text-align: justify;"> </div><ul style="margin-top: 0in; font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); text-align: justify;" type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;">Depending on the type of impurity added, extrinsic semiconductors are further classified as n-type and p-type semiconductor.</span></li></ul><div style="text-align: justify;">
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<br /></div> Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-31101994065271328942009-01-12T05:52:00.000-08:002009-01-12T05:56:38.602-08:00Hole transfer<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;">Hole transfer</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Hole transfer involves the movement of holes.</span><span style="font-family: arial;"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 364px; height: 172px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqrvucCvvK4Z_uuMo-pRvkxOvGaeQuM6KsuxUOhnmmUOerxJTts4wC8w2DC43iG7cwp38dEGJ6kln_RQdbU9sk0iDoW4H6VozNGJZbc586L63KNx9u-dLkEGPA1I5xoe8FiNgjFE0CMUwd/s320/Electron+motion+in+conductor+and+semiconductor.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290405505063172034" border="0" /></span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• Holes may be thought of positive charged particles and as such they move through an electric field in a direction opposite to that of electrons.</span></span><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• In a good conductor (metal) as shown in fig (a) the current flow is due to free electrons only.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• In a semiconductor as shown in fig (b). The current flow is due to both holes and electrons moving in opposite directions.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-family: arial;">• The unit of electric current is Ampere (A) and since the flow of electric current is constituted by the movement of electrons in conduction band and holes in valence band, electrons and holes are referred as charge carriers.</span></span><br /><br /></div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-26570657440094825972009-01-12T05:46:00.000-08:002009-01-12T06:00:27.389-08:00Energy bands<div style="text-align: justify; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;"><span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">Energy bands</span></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• In case of a single isolated atom an electron in any orbit has definite energy.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• When atoms are brought together as in solids, an atom is influenced by the forces from other atoms. Hence an electron in any orbit can have a range of energies rather than single energy. These range of energy levels are known as Energy bands.<img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 345px; height: 247px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiX72z4L8lvZLhklkaT9zU4C1acf-e4XVPQ6QK7IVZiwOxz_lHyspWVc3GhtMK6AWl1Y80w4iZoqOllgqKDNHqJmr4PyTUMNBwL0uzv9qDmHfBx_-vPiU68RGIKBVVWgunbIv2ddrgu1Ko/s320/Energy+level+Diagram.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290404116753674258" border="0" /></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• Within any material there are two distinct energy bands in which electrons may exist viz Valence band and conduction band.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• The range of energies possessed by valence electrons is called valence band.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• The range of energies possessed by free electrons is called conduction band.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• Valence band and conduction band are separated by an energy gap in which no electrons normally exist this gap is called forbidden gap.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >Electrons in conduction band are either escaped from their atoms (free electrons) or only weakly held to the nucleus. Thereby by the electrons in conduction band may be easily moved around within the material by applying relatively small amount of energy. (either by increasing the temperature or by focusing light on the material etc. ) This is the reason why the conductivity of the material increases with increase in temperature.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >But much larger amount of energy must be applied in order to extract an electron from the valence band because electrons in valence band are usually in the normal orbit around a nucleus. For any given material, the forbidden gap may be large, small or non-existent.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">Classification of materials based on Energy band theory</span><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 385px; height: 168px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhgmd1G4JCurxrAvQFFn6hqoFOTY-BRUTkRp46BTDZaiyaHkEJsaFfjBG4EgaGAmapzAP-1qit0kmUd2TgoW0E14R8QLhgJo74jluKTq7yAo1eV2QhQ3NdShgzREaXg-5ZFCs6GgyB2sTM/s320/Classification+of+Materials+based+on+Energy+band+theory.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290403979420160306" border="0" /></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >Based on the width of the forbidden gap, materials are broadly classified as conductors, Insulators and semiconductors.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conductors</span></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• Conductors are those substances, which allow electric current to pass through them.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" > Example: Copper, Al, salt solutions, etc.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• In terms of energy bands, conductors are those substances in which there is no forbidden gap. Valence and conduction band overlap as shown in fig (a).</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• For this reason, very large number of electrons are available for conduction even at extremely low temperatures. Thus, conduction is possible even by a very weak electric field.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">Insulators</span></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• Insulators are those substances, which do not allow electric current to pass through them.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >Example: Rubber, glass, wood etc.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• In terms of energy bands, insulators are those substances in which the forbidden gap is very large.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• Thus valence and conduction band are widely separated as shown in fig (b). Therefore insulators do not conduct electricity even with the application of a large electric field or by heating or at very high temperatures.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">Semiconductors</span></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• Semiconductors are those substances whose conductivity lies in between that of a conductor and Insulator.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >Example: Silicon, germanium, Cealenium, Gallium, arsenide etc.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• In terms of energy bands, semiconductors are those substances in which the forbidden gap is narrow.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• Thus valence and conduction bands are moderately separated as shown in fig(C).</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• In semiconductors, the valence band is partially filled, the conduction band is also partially filled, and the energy gap between conduction band and valence band is narrow.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• Therefore, comparatively smaller electric field is required to push the electrons from valence band to conduction band . At low temperatures the valence band is completely filled and conduction band is completely empty. Therefore, at very low temperature a semi-conductor actually behaves as an insulator.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >Conduction in solids</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• Conduction in any given material occurs when a voltage of suitable magnitude is applied to it, which causes the charge carriers within the material to move in a desired direction.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >• This may be due to electron motion or hole transfer or both.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">Electron motion</span></span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /></span> <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;font-size:100%;" >Free electrons in the conduction band are moved under the influence of the applied electric field. Since electrons have negative charge they are repelled by the negative terminal of the applied voltage and attracted towards the positive terminal.</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /></span> </div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-41602794522817978522009-01-12T05:37:00.000-08:002009-01-12T06:08:13.073-08:00Electronics<meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 12"><link style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CPLANET%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><link style="font-family: arial; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);" rel="themeData" href="file:///C:%5CDOCUME%7E1%5CPLANET%7E1%5CLOCALS%7E1%5CTemp%5Cmsohtmlclip1%5C01%5Cclip_themedata.thmx"><link 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{mso-level-number-format:bullet; mso-level-text:; mso-level-tab-stop:39.0pt; mso-level-number-position:left; margin-left:39.0pt; text-indent:-.25in; font-family:Symbol;} ol {margin-bottom:0in;} ul {margin-bottom:0in;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";} </style> <![endif]--> <p style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;" class="MsoBodyText2"><span style="font-size:100%;">The branch of engineering which deals with the flow of Electrons through vacuum, gas or semiconductor is called Electronics.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;"><i><o:p> </o:p></i></span></p> <p style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style=""> </span>Electronics essentially deals with electronic devices and their utilization. </span></p> <h3 style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></h3> <h3 style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:100%;">Atomic Structure</span></h3> <p style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;" class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:100%;"><b><o:p> </o:p></b></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39pt; text-indent: -0.25in; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="">·<span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;font-size:7;" > </span></span>Atom is the basic building block of all the eleme</span><span style="font-size:100%;">nts. It consists of the central nucleus of positive charge around which small negatively charged particles called electrons revolve in different paths or orbits.</span><!--[endif]--></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 21pt; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:100%;"><o:p> </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39pt; text-indent: -0.25in; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-size:100%;"><span style="">·<span style="font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;font-size:7;" > </span></span><span style=""> </span>An Electrostatic force of attraction between e</span><span style="font-size:100%;">lectrons and the nucleus holds up electrons</span><span style="font-size:100%;"> in different orbits.</span><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 372px; height: 188px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhShgWW9UaEV_MK5xyhyphenhyphen_idZjLZiRMfyni8aYxBY3dZsh_fDE2oaDTIa5o2R5akwuaDVblCmNW8s5nwzbwSiqIe7XfufZg9Xf_Qiub6kdJGjhhtchIVDm53w8fCRMpIAi5sBxQ0kK9zGFE/s320/Atomic+Structure.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5290401976132334562" border="0" /></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 39pt; text-indent: -0.25in; color: rgb(0, 0, 0);font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:100%;">• Nucleus is the central part of an atom and contains protons and neutrons. A proton is positively charged particle, while the neutron has the same mass as the proton, but has no charge. Therefore ,nucleus of an atom is positivel</span><span style="font-size:100%;">y charged.</span>
<br /><span style="font-size:100%;">
<br />• atomic weight = no. of protons + no. of neutrons
<br />
<br />• An electron is a negatively charged particle having negligible mass. The charge on an electron is equal but opposite to that on a proton. Also the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons in an atom under ordinary conditions. Therefore an atom is neutral as a whole.
<br />
<br />• atomic number = no. of protons or electrons in an atom
<br />
<br />• The number of electrons in any orbit is given by 2nsquare where n is the number of the orbit.
<br />
<br />For example, I orbit contains 2x1square =2 electrons
<br />
<br /> II orbit contains 2x2square = 8 electrons
<br />
<br /> III orbit contains 2x3square = 18 electrons and so on
<br />
<br />• The last orbit cannot have more than 8 electrons.
<br />
<br />• The last but one orbit cannot have more than 18 electrons.
<br />
<br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Positive and negative ions</span>
<br />
<br />• Protons and electrons are equal in number hence if an atom loses an electron it has lost negative charge therefore it becomes positively charged and is referred as positive ion.
<br />
<br />• If an atom gains an electron it becomes negatively charged and is referred to as negative ion.
<br />
<br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Valence electrons</span>
<br />
<br />The electrons in the outermost orbit of an atom are known as valence electrons.
<br />
<br />• The outermost orbit can have a maximum of 8 electrons.
<br />
<br />• The valence electrons determine the physical and chemical properties of a material.
<br />
<br />
<br />• When the number of valence electrons of an atom is less than 4, the material is usually a metal and a conductor. Examples are sodium, magnesium and aluminium, which have 1,2 and 3 valence electrons respectively.
<br />
<br />• When the number of valence electrons of an atom is more than 4, the material is usually a non-metal and an insulator. Examples are nitrogen, sulphur and neon, which have 5,6 and 8 valence electrons respectively.
<br />
<br />• When the number of valence electrons of an atom is 4 the material has both metal and non-metal properties and is usually a semi-conductor. Examples are carbon, silicon and germanium.
<br />
<br />
<br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Free electrons</span>
<br />
<br />• The valence electrons of different material possess different energies. The greater the energy of a valence electron, the lesser it is bound to the nucleus.
<br />
<br />• In certain substances, particularly metals, the valence electrons possess so much energy that they are very loosely attached to the nucleus.
<br />
<br />• The loosely attached valence electrons move at random within the material and are called free electrons.
<br />
<br />The valence electrons, which are loosely attached to the nucleus, are known as free electrons.
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<br /><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p></p> Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-5882276063102684792009-01-09T08:26:00.000-08:002009-01-09T08:29:12.446-08:00Vibration Terminology<div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Accelerance </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The frequency response function of acceleration/force. Also known as inertance. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Accelerometer </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A transducer whose output is n electrical/mechanical directly proportional to acceleration forces. The output is usually produced by force applied to a piezoelectric crystal which generates a current proportional to the applied force. This current is then amplified and displayed as a time waveform or processed by a Fourier transform to produce a frequency display. Single integration of the acceleration signal will produce a velocity display and double integration of the acceleration signal will produce a displacement display. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Accuracy </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">How close a measurement is to the absolute quantity. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Acoustic Emission </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The detected energy that is generated when materials are deformed or break. For rolling element bearing analysis, it is the periodic energy generated by the over rolling of particles or flaws and detected by the display of the bearing flaw frequencies. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Algorithm </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A specific procedure for solving mathematical problems. An FFT is an algorithm. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Aliasing </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">To digitize an analog signal for processing in digital instruments such as an FFT analyzer, it first must be periodically sampled, the sampling process occurring at a specific rate called the sampling frequency. As long as the sampling frequency is more than twice as high as the highest frequency in the signal, the sampled wave will be a proper representation of the analog waveform. If, however, the sampling frequency is less than twice as high as the highest frequency to be sampled, the sampled waveform will contain extraneous components called "aliases." The generation of aliases is called aliasing. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">An example of aliasing sometimes occurs in motion pictures, as for instance when the wagon wheels in a Western seem to be going backward. This is optical aliasing, caused by the fact that the frame rate of the movie camera (24 frames per second) is not fast enough to resolve the positions of the spokes. Another example of optical aliasing is the stroboscope, where a moving object is illuminated by a flashing light and can be made to appear stationary, or move backward.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Aliasing must be avoided in digital signal analysis to prevent errors, and FFT analyzers always contain low pass filters in their input stages to eliminate frequency components higher than one-half the sampling frequency. These filters are automatically tuned to the proper values as the sampling frequency is changed, and this occurs when the frequency range of the analyzer is changed.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Alignment </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A condition whereby the axes of machine components are either coincident, parallel or perpendicular, according to design requirements, during operation. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Amplification Factor (Q) </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The amount of mechanical gain of a structure when excited at a resonant frequency. The ratio of the amplitude of the steady state solution (amplitude at resonance) to the static deflection for the same force F. The amplification factor is a function of the system damping. For a damping ratio =0 (no damping) the amplification factor is infinite, for =1 (critically damped) there is no amplification. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Amplitude </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The measurement of energy or movement in a vibrating object. Amplitude is measured and expressed in three ways: Displacement (commonly in mils Pk-Pk); Velocity (commonly in In/Sec Pk); and Acceleration (commonly in gs RMS). Amplitude is also the y-axis of the vibration time waveform and spectrum, it helps define the severity of the vibration. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Analog </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Quantities in two separate physical systems having consistently similar relationships to each other are called analogous. One is then called the analog of the other. The electrical output of a transducer is an analog of the vibration input of the transducer as long as the transducer is not operated in the nonlinear (overloaded) range. This is in contrast to a digital representation of the vibration signal, which is a sampled and quantisized signal consisting of a series of numbers, usually in binary notation. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Analog to Digital Conversion </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The process of sampling an analog signal produces a series of numbers which is the digital representation of the same signal. The sampling frequency must be at least twice as high as the highest frequency present in the signal to prevent aliasing errors. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Angularity </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The angle between two shaft center lines; this angle is the same at any point along either centerline. It is normally specified in rise/run. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Anti-Aliasing Filter </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The low pass filter in the input circuitry of digital signal processing equipment such as FFT analyzers which eliminates all signal components higher in frequency than one-half the sampling frequency. See Aliasing. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Apodize, Apodization </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">To apodize is to remove or smooth a sharp discontinuity in a mathematical function, an electrical signal or a mechanical structure. An example would be to use a Hanning Window in the FFT analyzer to smooth the discontinuities at the beginning and end of the sample time record. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Asymmetrical Support </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A rotor support system that does not provide uniform restraint in all radial directions. This is typical in industrial machinery where stiffness in one plane may be substantially different than stiffness in the perpendicular plane. Occurs in bearings by design, or from preloads such as gravity or misalignment. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Asynchronous </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Nonsynchronous </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Frequencies in a vibration spectrum that exceed shaft turning speed (TS), but are not integer or harmonic multiples of TS. Also commonly refered to as non-synchronous. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Attitude Angle </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The angle between the steady state preload through the bearing centerline, and a line drawn between the bearing center and the shaft centerline. (Applies to fluid film bearings). </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Auto Correlation </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Auto correlation is a time-domain function that is a measure of how much a signal shape, or waveform, resembles a delayed version of itself. It is closely related to the Cepstrum, q.v. The numerical value of auto correlation can vary between zero and one. A periodic signal, such as a sine wave has an auto correlation that is equal to one at zero time delay, zero at a time delay of one-half the period of the wave, and one at a time delay of one period; in other words, it is a sinusoidal waveform itself. Random noise has an auto correlation of one at zero delay, but is essentially zero at all other delays. Auto correlation is sometimes used to extract periodic signals from noise. Certain dual-channel FFT analyzers are able to measure auto correlation. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Averaging </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">In performing spectrum analysis, regardless of how it is done, some form of time averaging must be done to accurately determine the level of the signal at each frequency. In vibration analysis, the most important type of averaging employed is linear spectrum averaging, where a series of individual spectra are added together and the sum is divided by the number of spectra. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Averaging is very important when performing spectrum analysis of any signal that changes with time, and this is usually the case with vibration signals of machinery. Linear averaging smoothes out the spectrum of the random noise in a spectrum making the discrete frequency components easier to see, but it does not actually reduce the noise level.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Another type of averaging that is important in machinery monitoring is time domain averaging, or time synchronous averaging, and it requires a tachometer connected to the trigger input of the analyzer to synchronize each "snapshot" of the signal to the running speed of the machine. Time domain averaging is very useful in reducing the random noise components in a spectrum, or in reducing the effect of other interfering signals such as components from another nearby machine.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">See also Time Synchronous Averaging.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Axial </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">In the same direction as the shaft centerline. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Axial Float (or End Float) </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Movement of one shaft along its centerline due to the freedom of movement permitted by a journal bearing or a sleeve bearing. This adjustment should be set before performing vertical or horizontal moves. The degree of axial float can be adjusted by the position of the stops, or whatever limits the motion. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Backlash </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A condition where a rotor can rotate freely for a certain angular distance before encountering any resisting force. It may be measured in degrees. This term normally applies to couplings and gears. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Band Pass Filter </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The frequency range over which a filter passes a signal within 3 dB of full strength. Outside the filter bandwidth, the signal is attenuated. The further outside, the greater the attenuation. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Bandwidth </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The difference in frequency between the upper and lower cutoff frequencies of a bandpass filter or other device is called the bandwidth of the filter or device. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Baseplate </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The surface to which the feet of a machine are attached. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Bearing </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Primarily two types, rolling element and sleeve or plain bearing. Rolling element bearings consist of four parts: an inner race, an outer race, balls or rollers, and a cage to maintain the proper separarion of the rolling elements. A sleeve bearing is a cylinder of alloy metal surrounding the rotating shaft. Contact between the shaft and sleeve is prevented by a lubrication film. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Bearing Frequencies </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Faults in any of the four bearing components will generate specific frequencies dependent upon the bearing geometry and rotating speed. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">BPFO - Ball Pass Frequency, Outer Race</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">BPFI - Ball Pass Frequency, Inner Race</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">BSF - Ball Spin Frequency</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">FTF - Fundamental Train Frequency</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Bearing Misalignment </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A misalignment that results when the bearings supporting a shaft are not aligned with each other. The bearings may not be mounted in parallel planes, cocked relative to the shaft, or distorted due to foundation settling or thermal growth. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Bearing Nomenclature </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Each bearing manufacturer has specific codes applied as prefixes and suffixes to their bearings. These codes inform the user of the construction, materials, clearances, and other factors used in the construction of the bearing. Consult the individual manufacturer's handbook for specific code meaning. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Beat Frequency </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">If two vibration components are quite close together in frequency and if they are present at the same time at the same place, they will combine in such a way that their sum will vary in level up and down at a rate equal to the difference in frequency between the two components. This phenomenon is known as beating, and its frequency is the beat frequency. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">There is confusion in some areas between beating and amplitude modulation, which also can produce an undulating vibration level. Amplitude modulation is different from beating, and is caused by a high-frequency component being multiplied by a lower-frequency component and is thus a nonlinear effect, whereas beating is simply a linear addition of two components whose frequencies are close to one another.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Bins </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">In an FFT spectrum, the individual frequencies at which the amplitudes are calculated, commonly called "lines." </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Binwidth </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Effective Binwidth </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">*these terms need more work* </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The binwidth equals the frequency span divided by the number of lines.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Effective binwidth equals the binwidth times the window noise factor.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Bit </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Short for binary digit. A number expressed in binary notation utilizes the digits 1 and 0, and these are called bits. Any number can be expressed with combinations of them. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Bode Plot </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">1.</span></span></span><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A plot of the frequency response function that includes log magnitude versus frequency plus phase versus frequency. For a single-degree of freedom, the magnitude is a maximum at the natural frequency and the phase shift is 90°. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">2.</span></span></span><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space:pre"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A type of spectrum plot that consists of a graph of amplitude vs frequency and a graph of phase vs frequency. In most vibration analysis work the phase spectrum is not important and is either ignored or not recorded. In two-channel vibration measurements, such as transfer functions and frequency response measurements used for modal analysis, phase is of vital importance. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The term is named after a man named Bode (pronounced Bo-day), who worked at the Bell Telephone Labs.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Bolt Bound </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The situation whereby a machine cannot be moved in the desired direction because of mounting hole restrictions. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Bow </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A shaft condition such that the geometric centerline of the shaft is not straight. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Buffer </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A memory location in a computer or digital instrument which is set aside for temporarily storing digital information while it is waiting to be processed. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Bump Testing </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A single channel approximation to a two channel impact test. This method works because the impacting force approximates an impulse and imparts broadband excitation over a limited frequency range. Since the Fourier Transform of the impulse response function is the frequency response function, it provides a good method of estimating the natural frequencies of the structure. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Calculated peak </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Term used to describe the spectral overall RMS level multiplied by sqrt (2). Sometimes referred to as "derived peak" or "pseudo peak." </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Cepstrum </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The cepstrum is the forward Fourier transform of a spectrum. It is thus the spectrum of a spectrum, and has certain properties that make it useful in many types of signal analysis. One of its more powerful attributes is the fact that any periodicities, or repeated patterns, in a spectrum will be sensed as one or two specific components in the cepstrum. If a spectrum contains several sets of sidebands or harmonic series, they can be confusing because of overlap. But in the cepstrum, they will be separated in a way similar to the way the spectrum separates repetitive time patterns in the waveform. Gearboxes and rolling element bearing vibrations lend themselves especially well to cepstrum analysis. The cepstrum is closely related to the auto correlation function. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Characteristic Equation </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The mathematical equation whose solution defines the dynamic characteristics of the structure in terms of its natural frequencies, damping, and mode shapes. The mathematical formulation of the characteristic equation is called the Eigenvalue problem. The characteristic equation is obtained from the equations of motion for the structure. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Circle Fit </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A single-degree of freedom curve fitting routine that tries to fit a mode to a circle (Nyquist plot of a single-degree of freedom system). The modal coefficient is determined by the diameter of the circle and the phase by its location relative to the imaginary axis. For a real mode, it should be either completely above or completely below the imaginary axis. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Coefficient of Thermal Expansion </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The constant value or factor of expansion of a material for a given increase in temperature, divided by the length of the material. This is different for each material. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Coherence </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Coherence is a number between one and zero, and is a measure of the degree of linearity between two related signals, such as the input force of a structure related to the vibration response to that force. Coherence is thus a two-channel measurement, and does not apply to single-channel measurements of vibration signatures. In a frequency response measurement of a mechanical structure, if the structure is linear, the coherence will be one, but if there is some nonlinearity in the structure or if there is noise in a measurement channel, the coherence will be less than one. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The dual-channel FFT analyzer is able to measure the coherence between the two channels, and it is a useful tool in determining good from noisy or meaningless data.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Coherence Function </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Coherence is a function of frequency that measures amount of power in the response (output) that is caused by the power in the excitation (input). If it is 100% coherent, the value is 1. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Co-Incident </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Another name for the real part of the frequency response function. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Cold Alignment </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Machine condition in which alignment procedures are normally performed. Changes in off-line to on-line running conditions should be allowed for during this procedure so that the machine can "grow" into alignment during operation. Also known as static alignment or primary alignment. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Complex Modes </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The points on a structure have varying phase relationships between them at a natural frequency. This is unlike a real mode where the phase between points is either 0° or 180°. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Compliance </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Frequency response function of displacement/force. Also known as Dynamic Compliance. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Coulomb Damping </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Nonlinear damping that is a result of rubbing, looseness, etc. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Coupling </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Mechanical fixture for joining two shafts. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Critical Damping </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The smallest amount of damping required to return a system to its equilibrium condition without oscillating. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Cross Correlation </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Cross correlation is a measure of the similarity in two time domain signals. If the signals are identical, the cross correlation will be one, and if they are completely dissimilar, the cross correlation will be zero. Certain dual-channel FFT analyzers are able to measure cross correlation. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Damped Natural Frequency </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The damped natural frequency is the frequency at which a damped system will oscillate in a free vibration situation. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">for a single-degree-of-freedom system.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Damping </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Energy dissipation in an oscillating structure. For free vibration, that results in a decay in the amplitude of motion over time. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Damping Factor or Damping Ratio ( ) </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The ratio of actual damping in a system to its critical damping ( = C / C c ) </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Degrees of Freedom </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The number of coordinates or independent variables it takes to completely describe the location of a structure. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Detector </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">An electronic circuit that determines the amplitude level of a signal in accordance with certain rules. The simplest type of detector consists of a resistor and a capacitor, and it measures the average value of a fluctuating DC signal. A more complex but much more useful type of detector is an RMS detector. RMS detectors are used because they are proportional to the power or energy present in the signal or a vibration. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Deterministic </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A type of signal whose spectrum consists of a collection of discrete components, as opposed to a random signal, whose spectrum is spread out or "smeared" in frequency. Some deterministic signals are periodic, and their spectra consist of harmonic series. Vibration signatures of machines are in general deterministic, containing one or more harmonic series, but they always have non- deterministic components, such as background noise. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Dial Indicator </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Instrument used to measure amounts of motion, or displacement in thousandths of an inch (mils) increments. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Differentiation </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">In vibration analysis, differentiation is a mathematical operation that converts a displacement signature to a velocity signature, or a velocity signature to an acceleration signature. It is performed electronically on an analog signal or can be performed digitally on a spectrum. Differentiation is an inherently noisy operation, if performed on an analog signal, adding a significant amount of high frequency noise to the signal, and is generally not used very much in machinery vibration analysis. It is not inherently noisy if it is done digitally on the FFT spectrum. See also Integration, which is the inverse of differentiation. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Digital </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Digital instrumentation consists of devices that convert analog signals into a series of numbers through a sampling process and an analog to digital converter. They then perform operations on the numbers to achieve such effects as equalization, data storage, data compression, frequency analysis, etc. This process in general is called digital signal processing. It is characterized by several advantages and disadvantages. One advantage is that the converted signals can be manipulated, transformed and copied without introducing any added noise or distortion. The disadvantage is that the signal representation may not be truly representative of the original signal. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Discrete </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">With reference to a spectrum, discrete means consisting of separate distinct points, rather than continuous. An example of a discrete spectrum is a harmonic series. An FFT spectrum, which consists of information only at specific frequencies (the FFT lines), is actually discrete regardless of the input signal. For instance, the true spectrum of a transient is continuous, and the FFT of a transient appears continuous on the screen, but still only contains information at the frequencies of the FFT lines. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The input signal to an FFT analyzer is continuous, but the sampling process necessary to implement the FFT algorithm converts it into a discrete form, with information only at the specific sampled times.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Discrete Fourier Transform </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The mathematical calculation that converts, or "transforms" a sampled and digitized waveform into a sampled spectrum. The fast Fourier transform, or FFT, is an algorithm that allows a computer to calculate the discrete Fourier transform very quickly. See also Fast Fourier Transform. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Dodd Bars </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A secondary alignment method. Consists of two bars that are similar in configuration to reverse dial indicator bars. However these bars are not mounted on the shaft, they are mounted to the machine. Each bar is fitted with a proximity probe and it corresponds to a block on the other bar. As the machines move to their on-line condition the gap between the proximity probe and the metal block changes, which changes the voltage. The analyzer converts the voltage to a distance and from these distances, the alignment corrections can be calculated. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Domain </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A domain is a set of coordinates in which a mathematical function resides. A waveform, for instance, has dimensions of amplitude and time, and it is said to exist in the time domain, while a spectrum has dimensions of amplitude and frequency, and is said to exist in the frequency domain. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Doweling </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Permanently mounted pins in the baseplate, which are inserted into close tolerance holes in the machine's feet, used to bring machines back to the same aligned position. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Driving Point Measurement </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A frequency response measurement where the excitation point and direction are the same as the response point and direction. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Dynamic Compliance </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">See compliance. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Dynamic Range </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The ratio in dB between the highest signal level that can be tolerated without distortion and the broadband noise level measured in the absence of the signal. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Dynamic Stiffness </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The frequency response function of force/displacement. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Eccentricity, Mechanical </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The variation of the outer diameter of a shaft surface when referenced to the true geometric centerline of the shaft. Out-of- roundness. See also Runout. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Eccentricity Ratio </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The vector difference between the bearing centerline and the average steady-state journal centerline. Applies to sleeve bearings not anti-friction bearings. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Eddy current probe </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A non-contact electrical device that measures the displacement of one surface relative to the tip of the probe. Construction consists of an electrical coil of various lengths and diameters. This coil located in the tip of the probe is energized producing an electrical field around the tip of the probe. When a conductive surface is placed in the field and the distance from the probe is noted, variations in this gap can be determined by the variations in the voltage flow to the probe tip. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Effective Mass </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The frequency response function of force/acceleration. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Eigenvalue </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The roots of the characteristic equation. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Eigenvalue Problem </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The mathematical formulation and solution of the characteristic equation is called the Eigenvalue problem. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Eigenvector </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The mode shape vectors. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">End Float </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">See axial float. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Engineering Units, EU </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The units in which a measurement is made; for instance velocity may be expressed in millimeters per second, miles per hour, or furlongs per fortnight, depending on the use to which the data will be put. Modern instrumentation, such as FFT analyzers allow one to specify what the engineering units are and to apply conversion factors if needed. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">EU </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">See Engineering Units. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Essinger Bars </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A seconardy alignment method used to measure the difference between on-line and off-line running conditions. The method measures the change in distance and a change in angle between two tooling balls. One ball is fixed to the bearing and the other ball is fixed to a fixed reference point (usually the floor). The balls are connected by means of an inside micrometer with a resolution of at least 0.001." This should be set up for both sides of the bearing, so the readings can be taken simultaneously. And readings should be taken at every bearing. As the machine "grows" the distances betwen the balls and the angle between the inside micrometer and a fixed location (also usually the floor) will change. And these changes can be used to determine the changes in alignment. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Exponential (Response) Window </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A special windowing function for minimizing leakage in lightly damped structures that is used in impact testing. In a lightly damped structure, oscillations may not die out within the sampled time data block, T, which results in leakage error. An exponential window adds damping to the time signal to force it to die out within the time T, thus minimizing leakage. The added damping is then removed mathematically after the signal is processed. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> Vibration Terminology </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Parameter Estimation </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The process of evaluating and curve fitting frequency response functions in order to estimate modal parameters. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Peak </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The maximum positive or negative dynamic excursion from zero (for an AC coupled signal) or from the offset level (for a DC coupled) of any time waveform. Sometimes referred to as "true peak" or "waveform peak." </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Peak-to-peak </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The amplitude difference between the most positive and most negative value in the time waveform. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Peak Pick </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A parameter estimation technique where the peak value of the imaginary part of the frequency response function is used to estimate the mode shape value at that point. The phase is given by its sense (positive or negative). This method is also known as quad picking since the value is being picked off the imaginary or quadrature part of the frequency response function. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Peak Scaling, Peak-to-Peak Scaling, RMS Scaling </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Methods to display the amplitude axis of a spectrum. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Period </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A signal that repeats the same pattern over time is called periodic, and the period is defined as the length of time encompassed by one cycle, or repetition. The period of a periodic waveform is the inverse of its fundamental frequency. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Periodic </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A signal is periodic if it repeats the same pattern over time. The spectrum of a periodic signal always contains a series of harmonics. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Perpendicular </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">At right angles (90°) to a given line or plane. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Phase (time lag or lead) </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The difference in time between two events such as the zero crossing of two waveforms, or the time between a reference and the peak of a waveform. The phase is expressed in degrees as the time between two events divided by the period (also a time), times 360 degrees. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Picket Fence Effect </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The FFT spectrum is a discrete spectrum, containing information only at the specific frequencies that are decided upon by setting the FFT analyzer analysis parameters. The true spectrum of the signal being analyzed may have peaks at frequencies between the lines of the FFT spectrum, and the peaks in the FFT spectrum will not be at exactly the correct frequencies. This is called Resolution Bias Error, or the Picket Fence Effect. The name arises because looking at an FFT spectrum is something like looking at a mountain range through a picket fence. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">By a process of interpolation, it is possible to increase the apparent resolution and amplitude accuracy of the FFT spectrum by a factor of ten.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Pipe Strain </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Casing and flange distortion caused by improper pipe flange fit up. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Power Spectral Density </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Power spectral density, or PSD, is a method of scaling the amplitude axis of spectra of random rather than deterministic signals. Because a random signal has energy spread out over a frequency band rather than having energy concentrated at specific frequencies, it is not meaningful to speak of its RMS value at any specific frequency. It only makes sense to consider its amplitude within a fixed frequency band, usually 1 Hz. PSD is defined in terms of amplitude squared per Hz, and is thus proportional to the power delivered by the signal in a one-Hz band. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Primary Alignment </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">See Cold Alignment. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">PSD </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">See Power Spectral Density. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Q (Sharpness of Resonance) </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Another term for amplification factor. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Quadrature Response </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Another name for the imaginary part of the frequency response function. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Quasi-Periodic </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A quasi-periodic signal is a deterministic signal whose spectrum is not a harmonic series, but nevertheless exists at discrete frequencies. The vibration signal of a machine that has nonsynchronous components resembles a quasi-periodic signal. In most cases, a quasi-periodic signal actually is a signal containing two or more different periodic components. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Radial </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Direction perpendicular to the shaft centerline. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Radial Position </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The average location, relative to the radial bearing centerline, of the shaft's dynamic motion. Applies only to sleeve bearings. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Real Part </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A plot of the real part of the frequency response function versus frequency. For a single degree of freedom, the magnitude is zero at the damped natural frequency. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Real or Normal Modes </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">In a real mode, all points on the structure reach a maximum or a minimum value at the same time and all pass through equilibrium at the same time. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Rectangular Window </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">In the FFT analyzer, the rectangular window is actually no window at all. It is also called rectangular weighting, or uniform weighting, and is used when the signal to be analyzed is a transient rather than a continuous signal. See also Hanning Window. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Repeatability </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The consistency (or variation) of readings and results between consecutive sets of measurements. It has nothing to do with accuracy. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Residual Terms </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Terms added to a curve fit algorithm to take into account the effects of modes outside the range being fitted. These terms consist of a mass term on the low frequency end and a stiffness term on the high. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Resolution </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The smallest change or amount a measurement system can detect. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Resolution Bias Error </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">See Picket Fence Effect. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Resonance </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">When a forcing frequency is the same as a resonant frequency of the structure, the structure is said to be in resonance. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Resonant Frequency </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The frequency of maximum amplification for a given damping ratio, . Resonant frequency </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> .</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Response Spectrum </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The frequency response function, also called the response spectrum, is a characteristic of a system that has a measured response resulting from a known applied input. In the case of a mechanical structure, the frequency response is the spectrum of the vibration of the structure divided by the spectrum of the input force to the system. To measure the frequency response of a mechanical system, one must measure the spectra of both the input force to the system and the vibration response, and this is most easily done with a dual-channel FFT analyzer. Frequency response measurements are used extensively in modal analysis of mechanical systems. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The frequency response function is actually a three-dimensional quantity, consisting of amplitude vs. phase vs. frequency. Therefore a true plot of it requires three dimensions, and this is difficult to represent on paper. One way to do this is the so-called Bode plot, which consists of two curves, one of amplitude vs. frequency and one of phase vs. frequency. Another way to look at the frequency response function is to resolve the phase portion into two orthogonal components, one in-phase part (called the real part), and one part 90 degrees out of phase (called the "quadrature" or "imaginary" part). Sometimes these two phase parts are plotted against each other, and the result is the so-called Nyquist plot.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Reverse Indicator Method </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Method for taking shaft alignment readings with indicators mounted radially at opposite ends of a spanned section (on each machine). </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Rim and Face Method </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">See Face-rim Method. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Rise/Run </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">For smaller angles, the ratio obtained when the change in offset between two center lines is divided by the distance along either centerline (between the points of offset measurement) . In effect, it is the slope of one line in a plane compared to another line in the same plane. Angularity is normally specified in mils/inch, or milliradians which is rise/run. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Roll Off, Rolloff </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The attenuation of a high-pass or low-pass filter is called roll off. The term is mostly used for high frequency attenuation. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Roots </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The roots of the characteristic equation are complex and have a real and imaginary part. The real part describes the damping (decay rate) of the system and the imaginary part describes the oscillations or damped natural frequency of the system. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Rotational Play </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Looseness, usually in a coupling, where a rotor can rotate a given distance before the rotational play is out and the coupled shaft begins to rotate also. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Runout </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A change in dial indicator position at the surface of the rotor during one rotation of the rotor, used to measure out-of-roundness or indicate a bent shaft. See also Eccentricity, Mechanical. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Sag </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Deflection due to gravity acting on a cantilevered or otherwise supported object. Mechanical brackets that hold alignment tools always sag a certain amount. This sag must be corrected if the machine moves are to calculated correctly. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Secondary Alignment </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The act of measuring off-line to on-line machinery movement. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Selectivity </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Selectivity is a measure of the narrowness of a band pass filter. The greater the selectivity, the narrower, or more selective, the filter. The term is also used to describe the ability of a radio receiver to separate transmitting stations that are close together on the dial. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Sensor </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Any device that translates the magnitude of one quantity into another quantity. Three of the most common transducers used in vibration measurements are accelerometer, velocity transducer, and eddy current probe. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Shim </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A thin piece of material inserted between the machine feet and the baseplate used to produce precise vertical adjustments to the machine centerline. Shims are normally made of stainless steel, mild steel, or plastic. Shims come in various thicknesses from 1 mil to 125 mils. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Shim Machine </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The machine whose position is changed during shaft alignment. Compare with Fixed Machine. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Sidebands </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Sidebands are spectral components that are the result of amplitude or frequency modulation. The frequency spacing of the sidebands is equal to the modulating frequency, and this fact is used in diagnosing machine problems by examining sideband families in the vibration spectrum. For instance, a defective gear will exhibit sidebands spaced apart at the gear rpm around the gearmesh frequency. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Signal </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">In vibration analysis, a signal is an electric voltage or current which is analog of the vibration being measured. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Single-Degree-of-Freedom System (SDOF) </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A system whose position in space can be completely described by one coordinate. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Soft Foot </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A term used to describe any condition where tightening or loosening the bolt(s) of the machine feet distorts the machine frame. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Spacers </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A generic term for any coupling that has 2 flex planes separated by a connecting shaft without bearings or other supports (between the flex points). Sometimes called an insert or spider. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Spectra </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Spectra is the plural of spectrum. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Spectrum </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The spectrum is the result of transforming a time domain signal to the frequency domain. It is the decomposition of a time signal into a collection of sine waves. The plural of spectrum is spectra. Spectrum analysis is the procedure of doing the transformation, and it is most commonly done with an FFT analyzer. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Spectrum Analyzer </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A spectrum analyzer converts a signal from the time domain into the frequency domain, and the FFT analyzer is the most common type today, but there are many other types. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Spool Piece </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Any piece of pipe or shafting that can be removed from a line of piping or shafting without disturbing or disassembling any other components. The name spool piece comes from the physical appearance of the piece, often a short cylinder with flanges the ends, which resembles a spool of string or thread. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Standard Deviation </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">If the instantaneous distances from an equilibrium position of a vibrating body are squared and averaged, the result is called the variance of the vibration. The square root of the variance is the standard deviation. It is also equal to the rms (root mean square) value. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Static Alignment </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">See Cold Alignment </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Stationary Signal </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A stationary signal is a signal whose average statistical properties over a time interval of interest are constant, and it may be deterministic or not. In general, the vibration signatures of rotating machines are stationary. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Structural Modification </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Mathematically determining the effect of changing the mass, stiffness, or damping of a structure and determining its new modal parameters. A modal analysis provides, in essence, a mathematical model of the structure. This model can be manipulated to determine the effect of modifications to the structure. The modal model can be generated either experimentally or using a finite element program. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Sub Harmonic </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Sub harmonics are synchronous components in a spectrum that are multiples of 1/2, 1/3, or 1/4 of the frequency of the primary fundamental. They are sometimes called "sub-synchronous" components. In the vibration spectrum of a rotating machine, there will normally be a component at the turning speed along with several harmonics of turning speed. If there is sufficient looseness in the machine so that some parts are rattling, the spectrum will usually contain sub harmonics. Harmonics of one-half turning speed are called "one-half order sub harmonics," etc. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Subsynchronous </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Frequencies in a vibration spectrum that are lower than the fundamental frequency. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Sub synchronous </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">See Sub Harmonic. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Synchronous </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Synchronous literally means "at the same time," but in spectrum analysis, synchronous components are defined as spectral components that are integral multiples, or harmonics, of a fundamental frequency. They may in some cases exist as multiples of an integral fraction of the fundamental frequency, in which case they are called sub harmonics. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Synchronous Averaging </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A type of signal averaging where successive records of the time waveform are averaged together. This is also know as time domain averaging. The important criterion is that the start of each time record must be triggered from a repetitive event in the signal, such as 1X rpm. The triggering assures that the phase of the waveform components that are synchronized with the trigger are the same in each record. Then in the averaging process, these in-phase components will add together while the rest of the signal components will gradually average out because of their random relative phases. The technique is excellent for extracting signals from noisy environments. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Thermal Growth </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Movement of the shaft center lines associated with (or due to) a change in machinery temperature between the static and operating conditions. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Thermal Profile </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A secondary alignment method used to measure thermal growth. This method is only used for calculating the vertical thermal growth of the shaft centerline due to a change in temperature. The shim plane, under the machine feet, serves as a benchmark. This technique is usually used for machines under 500 HP. The technique uses the linear expansion equation where: Expansion in mils (E) is equal to the average change in temperature, F° (T) multiplied by the vertical distance from the shim plane to the shaft centerline, in inches mutiplied by the coefficient of thermal expansion, in mils/inch F°. E =3D T X L X C This is to be calculated for both sides of the bearing. The number of temperture readings is not critical, but at least 4 is recommended. The average change in temperature is between the offline and online temperatures. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">TIR </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Total Indicator Runout. The total movement in mils of a dial indicator after a given rotation of a rotor. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Tolerance </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The maximum permissible deviation from the specified quantity. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Torsional Play </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Misnomer for Rotational Play. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Transducer </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Any device that translates the magnitude of one quantity into another quantity. Three of the most common transducers used in vibration measurements are accelerometer, velocity transducer, and eddy current probe. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Transfer Function </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The output to input relationship of a structure. Mathematically it is the Laplace transform of the output divided by the Laplace transform of the input. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Transform </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A transform is a mathematical operation that converts a function from one domain to another domain with no loss of information. For example, the Fourier transform converts a function of time into a function of frequency. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Transmissibility </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The Fourier transform of the forced response of a structure measured at one location to the response at another location. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Tunable Filter </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">A filter whose cutoff frequencies are adjustable, either manually or under remote electrical control. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Uniform window </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">In the FFT analyzer, the uniform, or rectangular, window does not modify the signal amplitude at all. It is also called rectangular weighting, or uniform weighting, and is selected when the signal to be analyzed is a transient rather than a continuous signal. See also Hanning Window. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Undamped Natural Frequency </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The same as the natural frequency of a structure. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Velocity Transducer </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">An electrical/mechanical transducer whose output is directly proportional to the velocity of the measured unit. A velocity transducer consists of a magnet suspended on a coil, surrounded by a conductive coil. Movement of the transducer induces movement in the suspended magnet. This movement inside the conductive coil generates an electrical current proportional to the velocity of the movement. A time waveform or a Fourier transform of the current will result in a velocity measurement. The signal can also be integrated to produce a displacement measurement. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Viscous Damping </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Damping that is proportional to velocity. Viscous damping is used largely for system modeling since it is linear. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Waveform </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The waveform is the shape of a time domain signal as seen on an oscilloscope screen. It is a visual representation or graph of the instantaneous value of the signal plotted against time. Inspection of the waveform can sometimes reveal information about the signal that the spectrum of the signal does not show. For instance a sharp spike or impulse and a randomly varying continuous signal can have spectra that look almost identical, while their waveforms are completely different. In machine vibration, spikes are usually caused by mechanical impacting, while random noise can be caused by the advanced stages of bearing degradation. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Wedge Shim </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Technique where the use of several shims are used to fill the wedge-shaped gap of a bent foot. Each shim is inserted to a different depth so that the stair-stepped support is better built to support the entire foot. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Weighting </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">See Window. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">Window </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size:medium;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold;">The FFT analyzer does not operate in a continuous manner, but is instead a batch processing device, taking samples of the time domain signal and transforming them into a frequency domain spectrum. The time interval during which the signal is sampled and recorded is called the window. In order to compensate for certain limitations of the FFT process, the time data in the window are often multiplied by a weighting curve, such as a Hanning or Flattop weighting. These weighting curves are also called the Hanning window and the Flattop window respectively. See also Weighting. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-91625610702210141742009-01-09T07:37:00.000-08:002009-01-09T07:55:30.873-08:00The Metallurgy Of Carbon Steel<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; "><div style="border-top-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 3px; padding-right: 3px; padding-bottom: 3px; padding-left: 3px; width: auto; font: normal normal normal 100%/normal Georgia, serif; text-align: left; "><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; "><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">The Metallurgy Of Carbon Steel</span></span><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; "><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">The best way to understand the metallurgy of carbon steel is to study the ‘Iron Carbon Diagram’. The diagram shown below is based on the transformation that occurs as a result of slow heating. Slow cooling will reduce the transformation temperatures; for example: the A1 point would be reduced from 723°C to 690 °C. </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; "><b><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Austenite</span></u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"> </span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">This phase is only possible in carbon steel at high temperature. It has a Face Centre Cubic (F.C.C) atomic structure which can contain up to 2% carbon in solution.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></li></ul><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; "><b><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Ferrite</span></u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"> </span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">This phase has a Body Centre Cubic structure (B.C.C) which can hold very little carbon; typically 0.0001% at room temperature. It can exist as either: alpha or delta ferrite. </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></li></ul><b><div style="text-align: justify; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal; "><b><u><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Carbon </span></span></u><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"> </span></span></b><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">A very small interstitial atom that tends to fit into clusters of iron atoms. It strengthens steel and gives it the ability to harden by heat treatment. It also causes major problems for welding , particularly if it exceeds 0.25% as it creates a hard microstructure that is susceptible to hydrogen cracking. Carbon forms compounds </span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div></b><p></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; "><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">with other elements called carbides. Iron Carbide, Chrome Carbide etc.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></li></ul><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; "><b><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Cementite</span></u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"> </span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Unlike ferrite and austenite, cementite is a very hard intermetallic compound consisting of 6.7% carbon and the remainder iron, its chemical symbol is Fe</span><sub><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 16px; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">3</span></span></sub><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">C. Cementite is very hard, but when mixed with soft ferrite layers its average hardness is reduced considerably. Slow cooling gives course perlite; soft easy to machine but poor toughness. Faster cooling gives very fine layers of ferrite and cementite; harder and tougher</span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; "><b><u><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Pearlite</span></span></u><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"> </span></span></b><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">A mixture of alternate strips of ferrite and cementite in a single grain. The distance between the plates and their thickness is dependant on the cooling rate of the material; fast cooling creates thin plates that are close together and slow cooling creates a much coarser structure possessing less toughness. The name for this structure is derived from its mother of pearl appearance under a microscope. A fully pearlitic structure occurs at 0.8% Carbon. Further increases in carbon will create cementite at the grain boundaries, which will start to weaken the steel. </span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; "><b><u><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Cooling of a steel below 0.8% carbon </span></span></u><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"> </span></span></b><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">When a steel solidifies it forms austenite. When the temperature falls below the A3 point, grains of ferrite start to form. As more grains of ferrite start to form the remaining austenite becomes richer in carbon. At about 723°C the remaining austenite, which now contains 0.8% carbon, changes to pearlite. The resulting structure is a mixture consisting of white grains of ferrite mixed with darker grains of pearlite. Heating is basically the same thing in reverse. </span></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="color: black; "><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; "><b><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Martensite</span></u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"> </span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">If steel is cooled rapidly from austenite, the F.C.C structure rapidly changes to B.C.C leaving insufficient time for the carbon to form pearlite. This results in a distorted structure that has the appearance of fine needles. There is no partial transformation associated with martensite, it either forms or it doesn’t. However, only the parts of a section that cool fast enough will form martensite; in a thick section it will only form to a certain depth, and if the shape is complex it may only form in small pockets. The hardness of martensite is solely dependant on carbon content, it is normally very high, unless the carbon content is exceptionally low.</span><b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"><u></u></span></b></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; "><b><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Tempering</span></u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"> </span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">The carbon trapped in the martensite transformation can be released by heating the steel below the A1 transformation temperature. This release of carbon from nucleated areas allows the structure to deform plastically and relive some of its internal stresses. This reduces hardness and increases toughness, but it also tends to reduce tensile strength. The degree of tempering is dependant on temperature and time; temperature having the greatest influence. </span></li><li class="MsoNormal"><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></li></ul><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; "><b><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Annealing</span></u></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"> This term is often used to define a heat treatment process that produces some softening of the structure. True annealing involves heating the steel to austenite and holding for some time to create a stable structure. The steel is then cooled very slowly to room temperature. This produces a very soft structure, but also creates very large grains, which are seldom desirable because of poor toughness.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></li></ul><ul type="disc"><li class="MsoNormal"><div style="text-align: justify; "><b><u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Normalising</span></u></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"> Returns the structure back to normal. The steel is heated until it just starts to form austenite; it is then cooled in air. This moderately rapid transformation creates relatively fine grains with uniform pearlite. <br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"> <br /></span></div></li></ul><b><div style="text-align: justify; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: normal; "><b><u><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Welding</span></span></u></b><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"> If the temperature profile for a typical weld is plotted against the carbon equilibrium diagram, a wide variety of transformation and heat treatments will be observed. </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"> </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"><br /></span></div></b></li><li class="MsoNormal"><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; "><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Mixture of ferrite and pearlite grains; temperature below A1, therefore microstructure not significantly affected.</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; "><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Pearlite transformed to Austenite, but not sufficient temperature available to exceed the A3 line, therefore not all ferrite grains transform to Austenite. On cooling, only the transformed grains will be normalised. </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; "><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Temperature just exceeds A3 line, full Austenite transformation. On cooling all grains will be normalised</span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></p><span><div style="text-align: justify; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Temperature significantly exceeds A3 line permitting grains to grow. On cooling, ferrite will form at the grain boundaries, and a course pearlite will form inside the grains. A course grain structure is more readily hardened than a finer one, therefore if the cooling rate between 800°C to 500°C is rapid, a hard microstructure will be formed. This is why a brittle fracture is most likely to propagate in this region. <br /></span></div></span></li><li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify; "><span><b><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;">Welds </span></span></b><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"> The metallurgy of a weld is very different from the parent material. Welding filler metals are designed to create strong and tough welds, they contain fine oxide particles that permit the nucleation of fine grains. When a weld solidifies, its grains grow from the course HAZ grain structure, further refinement takes place within these course grains creating the typical acicular ferrite formation shown opposite. </span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial;"> </span></span></li></ul></li></ul></span></p></div></span>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8380650681985198814.post-10036393769740423542009-01-07T23:07:00.000-08:002009-01-07T23:14:01.242-08:00The Birth of Modern Programming C<div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The C language shook the computer world. Its impact should not be underestimated,</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">because it fundamentally changed the way programming was approached and thought</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">about. The creation of C was a direct result of the need for a structured, efficient, highlevel</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">language that could replace assembly code when creating systems programs. As</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">you probably know, when a computer language is designed, trade-offs are often made,</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">such as the following:</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">■ Ease-of-use versus power</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">■ Safety versus efficiency</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">■ Rigidity versus extensibility</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Prior to C, programmers usually had to choose between languages that optimized</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">one set of traits or the other. For example, although FORTRAN could be used to write</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">fairly efficient programs for scientific applications, it was not very good for systems</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">code. And while BASIC was easy to learn, it wasn’t very powerful, and its lack of</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">structure made its usefulness questionable for large programs. Assembly language</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">can be used to produce highly efficient programs, but it is not easy to learn or use</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">effectively. Further, debugging assembly code can be quite difficult.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Another compounding problem was that early computer languages such as BASIC,</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">COBOL, and FORTRAN were not designed around structured principles. Instead, they</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">relied upon the GOTO as a primary means of program control. As a result, programs</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">written using these languages tended to produce “spaghetti code”—a mass of tangled</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">jumps and conditional branches that make a program virtually impossible to</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">understand. While languages like Pascal are structured, they were not designed for</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">efficiency, and failed to include certain features necessary to make them applicable to</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">a wide range of programs. (Specifically, given the standard dialects of Pascal available</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">at the time, it was not practical to consider using Pascal for systems-level code.)</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">So, just prior to the invention of C, no one language had reconciled the conflicting</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">attributes that had dogged earlier efforts. Yet the need for such a language was</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">pressing. By the early 1970s, the computer revolution was beginning to take hold, and</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">the demand for software was rapidly outpacing programmers’ ability to produce it.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">A great deal of effort was being expended in academic circles in an attempt to create a</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">better computer language. But, and perhaps most importantly, a secondary force was</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">beginning to be felt. Computer hardware was finally becoming common enough that a</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">critical mass was being reached. No longer were computers kept behind locked doors.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">For the first time, programmers were gaining virtually unlimited access to their</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">machines. This allowed the freedom to experiment. It also allowed programmers to</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">begin to create their own tools. On the eve of C’s creation, the stage was set for a</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">quantum leap forward in computer languages.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Invented and first implemented by Dennis Ritchie on a DEC PDP-11 running the</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">UNIX operating system, C was the result of a development process that started with</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">an older language called BCPL, developed by Martin Richards. BCPL influenced a</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">language called B, invented by Ken Thompson, which led to the development of C</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">in the 1970s. For many years, the de facto standard for C was the one supplied with</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">the UNIX operating system and described in The C Programming Language by Brian</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie (Prentice-Hall, 1978). C was formally standardized in</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">December 1989, when the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard for</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">C was adopted.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">The creation of C is considered by many to have marked the beginning of the</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">modern age of computer languages. It successfully synthesized the conflicting</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">attributes that had so troubled earlier languages. The result was a powerful, efficient,</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">structured language that was relatively easy to learn. It also included one other, nearly</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">intangible aspect: it was a programmer’s language. Prior to the invention of C, computer</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">languages were generally designed either as academic exercises or by bureaucratic</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">committees. C is different. It was designed, implemented, and developed by real,working programmers, reflecting the way that they approached the job of programming.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Its features were honed, tested, thought about, and rethought by the people who</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">actually used the language. The result was a language that programmers liked to use.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">Indeed, C quickly attracted many followers who had a near-religious zeal for it. As</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">such, it found wide and rapid acceptance in the programmer community. In short,</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">C is a language designed by and for programmers. As you will see, Java has inherited</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:georgia;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: medium;">this legacy.</span></span></div></span></div>Ashwin.Shttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06902489830075744388noreply@blogger.com0